Psychosocial risk factors in the audiovisual sector

Introduction

The audiovisual sector encompasses a diverse range of activities, including film, television, radio, advertising, streaming, animation and digital media production. While widely recognised for its creativity, dynamism and cultural influence, the sector is also characterised by demanding working conditions. High workloads, intense competition, job insecurity, tight deadlines and irregular schedules are common across many parts of the sector. Together, these factors can contribute to psychosocial risks that may negatively affect workers' mental health, well-being and work-related outcomes.

Audiovisual sector: description and context

The audiovisual sector is the industry that produces audiovisual content such as feature films, short films, documentaries, 3D and animation, virtual and augmented reality experiences, TV shows, TV series, commercials, online video content and music videos. The audiovisual sector comprises NACE^[i] sectors 59 Motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and music publishing activities and sector 60 Programming, broadcasting, news agency and other content distribution activities^[1][2]. In 2024, the sector employed almost 750,000 persons in the EU^[3]. Over the past decade, employment in the sector has shown a steadily upward trend. By way of comparison, in 2017 employment stood at around 665,000 people. Although employment in the sector declined in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it has since recovered. With this trend, the audiovisual sector is following the employment trends seen across the wider cultural sector^[4].

Most businesses in the audiovisual sector are small. On average, each employer has 4.4 employees^[2]. The limited scale of these businesses, combined with restricted financial resources, makes it difficult for them to compete globally^[5]. It also limits their ability to invest in and adopt new digital technologies, thereby widening the gap between these smaller companies and larger market players despite the sector's high level of innovation^[6]. Although digital platforms have created new opportunities and business models, they have also exacerbated income instability and market concentration^[2], meaning that a smaller number of bigger organisations dominates the market. 

Furthermore, compared to the general economy, the sector is characterised by a higher proportion of young workers, as well as a higher level of educational attainment^{[2] [7]}. The digital transition has led to an increased demand for young, well-educated workers with digital skills. The downside is that young people are more likely to be in non-standard employment and have atypical work contracts compared to older workers. Young entrants often accept unpaid work as part of building a career in a highly competitive environment. Internships serve as key entry points offering opportunities for networking and gaining practical experience in the audiovisual sector. However, their widespread use, particularly when unpaid or poorly structured, can contribute to short-term or fragmented employment, limiting income stability and progression into more stable roles^[8].

Across Europe, women are estimated to make up roughly 20–30% of the workforce in the audiovisual sector^[9]. Gender inequality is not only a matter of overall participation but also refers to inequalities in the distribution of roles and existing pay gaps, as well as career paths for women^[10]. Some jobs, such as directing, screenwriting and sound engineering, remain typically male-dominated, with women accounting for less than 30% of professionals in these fields. In contrast, other roles, including costume design, hair and make-up, and casting, are predominantly female, with men making up less than 30%^[11]. 

Employment in the audiovisual sector is characterised by a high prevalence of self-employment, freelance work and project-based contracts^[6]. While these flexible arrangements can foster creativity and mobility, they are also associated with income instability and limited access to social protection, including healthcare, unemployment benefits and pension schemes, resulting in precarious work^{[12] [8]}. These trends have been exacerbated by the digital shift and the emergence of a multiplatform environment, which are transforming business models and individual career paths^{[6] [13]}. As production and distribution become increasingly fragmented and platform-driven, work is more often organised around short-term projects rather than long-term employment relationships^[14] [2]. Shrinking public funding and growing competitive pressures have further contributed to precarious employment conditions, reflected in shorter contracts, increased freelancing and other atypical forms of work. Permanent employment remains largely concentrated in a small number of larger organisations, particularly public and commercial broadcasters, which are able to sustain continuous production activities^[2].

The sector's employment patterns are further complicated by the growing importance of digital platforms and the cross-border mobility of workers, creating challenges related to taxation, social security contributions and employment status classification. Additionally, working patterns in the cultural and audiovisual sectors tend to blur the boundaries between formal working hours and 'hidden' labour (including rehearsals, training, and project development) and personal time. This can result in some working time not being remunerated, meaning it does not count towards unemployment or pension schemes^{[8] [14]}.

Income precarity forces many professionals to take on multiple jobs to sustain their income. A survey carried out in 2024 in the cultural sector as a whole (not just the audiovisual sector)^[13] indicates that 68% of workers hold more than one job, with over a third of these secondary occupations located outside the cultural sector altogether. In many cases, such secondary work becomes the primary and more reliable source of income^[8]. Additionally, some audiovisual workers expect a portion of their earnings to come from royalties and copyright-related revenues, i.e. payments received when their work is reused, licensed or distributed. However, these income streams are under increasing pressure due to digitalisation, including the growth of streaming and video-on-demand platforms, the prevalence of buy-out (i.e. a one-off payment for creators in exchange for transferring their rights); and work-for-hire contracts whereby work is produced for and owned by the commissioning part, as well as ongoing piracy issues^[14]. Together, these factors contribute to an uncertain and fragmented income for audiovisual professionals which is reflected in their employment situation. Box 1 presents data on audiovisual directors and screenwriters.

Source^[15]

Key psychosocial hazards and impact on health

Psychosocial hazards are negative aspects of psychosocial factors — i.e. elements of the design and management of work and its social and organisational contexts — that may adversely affect workers' health and other organisational outcomes. Examples include low autonomy and poor social support^[16]. A psychosocial risk is the potential for these hazards to cause psychological, social, or physical harm^[17]. Psychosocial risks can lead to mental health issues such as burnout, anxiety and depression, and can also cause serious physical health problems such as cardiovascular disease and musculoskeletal disorders^[18]. Furthermore, at an organisational level, they can impact business performance by increasing absenteeism and staff turnover, as well as raising injury rates^[19].

Studies have shown that a poor psychosocial work environment characterised by effort-­reward imbalance, low organisational justice and high job demands significantly increase the risk of work-related mental health problems^[20]. A Finnish survey of people working in the film and TV industry^[21] found that almost two out of three respondents had experienced psychological symptoms, which is three times the level seen in the rest of the Finnish working-age population. Symptoms were particularly prevalent among sole entrepreneurs and the self-employed^[21].

The UK Looking Glass Survey 2024 among more than 4,300 film and TV workers revealed that 35% of respondents described their mental health as ‘poor’ or ‘very poor’^[22]. Even more concerning is that 30% had suicidal thoughts in the past 12 months, which is significantly higher than the national average of 5% among English adults^[22]. Vulnerable groups such as freelancers, disabled, LGBTQ+ workers, neurodivergent workers and those with minority backgrounds are even at greater risk of poor mental health^[22]. 

Similar survey studies across the audiovisual sector confirm these results, providing data indicating a considerably higher prevalence of work-related health problems, such as depression, anxiety, burnout, self-harm and suicidality, than in the general population. An overview study based on data and insights from surveys, focus groups, and interviews with various media professionals (including film, documentary, and television)^[23] concluded that, on average, two-thirds of all media professionals worldwide directly link poor health to their working circumstances. Factors such as a high workload, receiving little or no managerial support, lack of appreciation and reward, job insecurity as well as an “always on” culture affect the mental health and overall well-being of workers in the sector^[23]. 

Despite the high prevalence of work-related health problems in the sector, engagement with work is generally strong, particularly among those involved in creative work^[21]. The opportunity to work in a dynamic, creative and exciting workplace where no two days are the same fosters a sense of dedication to the job^[24].

The table below provides an overview of the main psychosocial hazards in the audiovisual sector. The most significant hazards are explained in the following sections.

Table: Main psychosocial hazards in the audiovisual sector

Source: compiled by the author based on^{[25] [27] [22] [23] [28] [26] [24]}

High workload

A high workload and long working hours are commonplace in the audiovisual sector. The industry is characterised by a fast-paced environment, demanding schedules and tight deadlines. These pressures are often exacerbated by limited budgets, creating an implicit expectation to maximise output while minimising labour costs. Consequently, staff often find themselves facing excessive demands in terms of both time and work intensity^{[25] [27] [22]}.

Working patterns during production further exacerbate these conditions. Long filming days and production periods, combined with overlapping or consecutive work periods, frequently limit opportunities for adequate rest and recovery^{[28] [29]}. A global survey carried out by UNI Global Union, based on data gathered from 28 unions in 22 countries representing over 150,000 behind-the-scenes crew members in feature film, independent television and streaming content production^[29], found that workers typically work at least 11 hours per day. With an additional one to two hours for 'prep and wrap' duties before and after filming, the overall average is 12 to 13 hours per day. 41% of all respondents said that overtime is a frequent practice and 35 % said it is always required^[29].

Evidence from the Looking Glass Survey (2024) also highlights the scale of the problem: 18% of respondents in the film and TV industry said they had worked over 50 hours in the week before the survey^[22]. 

Similar findings emerge from other studies. For example, a 2020 UK study of the unscripted television industry based on 1,184 responses from people in various production roles^[30] revealed that long working hours were their main concern, with 68% reporting that they were expected to work excessive hours. Unreasonable time pressures were reported at all stages of production, including pre- and post-production. The most serious experiences, however, were associated with the shooting phase, where long hours are commonplace and often taken to extremes^[30]. 

Working long hours has a negative effect on health. A survey of Screen Guilds of Ireland members in the film industry (2022)^[31] found that 80% believed that their working hours negatively impacted their health and well-being. Research^{[32] [33]} shows that long working days and weeks are associated with fatigue and exhaustion, as well as an increased risk of ischaemic heart disease and stroke. It has also been linked to poorer self-rated health, sleep quality and well-being. Fatigue also increases safety risks. More than nine out of ten respondents to a survey (nearly 500 respondents UK film and TV industry, data 2017)^[34] reported that they had, at some time, felt unsafe at work, or travelling to and from work, because of tiredness.

Working long or irregular hours (such as weekends or evenings) can make it difficult to maintain a healthy work-life balance. A majority of the respondents (63%) to the Looking Glass Survey felt that their work negatively affects their personal relationships^[22]. Many workers experience family and relationship conflicts, difficulties with childcare arrangements, a lack of hobbies and personal time, and even social isolation as a result of their work^{[35] [31] [34]}.

Job insecurity

Job insecurity is a key psychosocial hazard in the audiovisual sector^{[27] [30] [23]}, where employment is characterised by project-based work, freelance contracts and intense competition for limited opportunities. Many workers in the sector regularly experience gaps between projects, with no guarantee of when the next job will arise. Contracts are usually short-term, offering limited protection and social security benefits^{[30] [8]}. This makes it difficult for workers in the sector to make ends meet. For example, research by Raising Film Ireland (2021) found that 18% of workers in the sector earn less than €10,000 per year^[31]. The fact that earnings from audiovisual activities are often insufficient or unpredictable means that people have to take on multiple jobs^[8]. A study of Australian actors, for example, found that the majority were unable to achieve financial stability through acting alone. As many as 85% reported needing to supplement their income with work outside the profession, with most earning more from non-acting roles than from their core artistic practice^[36].

Findings from the Looking Glass Survey (2024)^[22] illustrate the scale and impact of job insecurity within the sector. Around 34% of respondents reported being unemployed in the week prior to the survey, highlighting the prevalence of employment gaps. Even among those in employment, concerns about future work were widespread, particularly among freelancers and those on short-term contracts. Overall, only 13% of respondents felt that their job was secure. Moreover, 34% of those who perceived their work as insecure reported poor mental health, compared to 14% of those who felt relatively secure. These effects are further aggravated by financial insecurity, with 40% of respondents experiencing financial worries reporting poor mental health, compared to 17% of those without such worries^[22]. 

This widespread job insecurity in the sector is particularly concerning given the considerable amount of evidence showing that insecure and precarious employment can significantly impact mental health and overall well-being negatively^{[37] [38][18]}.

Distressing content

Exposure to traumatic and emotionally distressing content poses a significant psychosocial risk in the audiovisual sector^[39]. Workers may encounter material involving crime, violence, sexual abuse, torture, suicide or bereavement, which can trigger acute stress reactions and contribute to longer-term mental health issues, especially if the subject matter relates to their personal experiences^[39].

The impact varies by role. For example, actors may experience blurred boundaries between their personal identity and that of the characters they portray, particularly when roles require deep emotional immersion, making it more difficult to detach from distressing material[40]. Those working in post-production, such as editors, reviewers and content moderators, may also be exposed to traumatic content, often without prior warning, adequate preparation or support. Unlike actors, they tend to be exposed to such content in a more fragmented yet cumulative way, which can still result in a significant emotional burden over time^[41].

Bullying, harassment, and discrimination

Bullying, harassment, and discrimination are widespread issues in the sector. 32% of all Looking Glass respondents had experienced bullying or harassment in the 12 months prior to the survey and 19% had experienced discrimination. Specific groups, including freelancers, people from Black and Global Majority^[ii] backgrounds, disabled people, neurodivergent workers, women, LGBTQ+ individuals and religious minorities, are at an increased risk^[42]. Similar findings emerged from a survey-based study of individuals employed in the Danish film, television, and performing arts industries^[43]. 19% of respondents had experienced unwanted sexual attention in the past five years, and 33% had experienced bullying or psychological violence. Overall, 51% of respondents reported experiencing some form of adverse social behaviour, which is significantly higher than in the general population (43%)^[43].

Attitudes towards workplace bullying and harassment have shifted over the past decades. While there is now a greater awareness of the seriousness of harassment and bullying, there is still a reluctance to acknowledge that it is a systemic issue linked to organisational structures and working conditions, rather than the actions of a few individuals^[30]. In their study, Van Raalte et al.^[30] argue that workplace harassment and bullying in the screen industries is best understood as a consequence of interconnected systems and practices. Their study highlights how many known risk factors for harassment and bullying are embedded in everyday television production. These include excessive workloads, role ambiguity and conflict, job insecurity, power imbalances, poor communication, perceived unfairness, blame-oriented cultures, and 'laissez-faire' leadership^[30]. Workers are often reluctant to address issues of bullying and harassment because they believe it would negatively impact their future job prospects^[24]. This contributes to an overall culture of tolerance and fear of speaking up. The Looking Glass survey highlights that more than 1 out of 2 who have been subject to harassment and/or bullying, did not report it and that this was more common among freelancers compared to permanent staff (55% and 42%, respectively). 

News coverage of the sexual abuse cases in the American movie productions, and the subsequent #MeToo movement, has highlighted the prevalence of sexual harassment in the screen industries^{[23] [24]}. Despite this heightened awareness, research consistently shows that the problem remains widespread. For example, a 2025 report by CIMA (Association of Women in Film and Audiovisual Media in Spain) revealed that over half of women employed in Spain's audiovisual industry had encountered sexual violence in a professional setting, yet the vast majority (92%) did not report it^[44]. Similarly, interview-based research in the UK film and television industry^[45] reveals that harassment is often normalised or minimised, meaning it is not always recognised as such or is not adequately addressed. A recurring finding across studies is that sexual harassment is significantly underreported. Many workers feel that existing reporting mechanisms are ineffective or unsafe, which often leads them to remain silent or even leave their jobs rather than report incidents^[46][47]. This is often due to fear of retaliation or damage to future career prospects. These patterns are closely linked to structural inequalities and working conditions within the industry. Gendered power imbalances and hierarchical workplace cultures can enable abusive behaviour, while the widespread use of freelance, temporary and self-employed contracts increases vulnerability^{[48] [45] [47]}. 

Lack of support

Additionally, a lack of supportive work environments is common in the audiovisual sector^[49]. Organisational support in the form of formal HR structures, clear policies and supportive leadership can help to prevent mental health problems^[50][51][52]. Access to managers with strong interpersonal and leadership skills is particularly important, as a lack of supervisor support is associated with poorer health outcomes, increased burnout, lower job satisfaction and higher intentions to leave the organisation^{[51] [53]}.

However, survey findings suggest that many managers in the sector do not feel adequately equipped to provide this support. The Looking Glass survey^[22] showed that, of those responsible for the wellbeing of others — particularly freelance managers — feel they lack the necessary knowledge and skills to address mental health issues adequately. 

At the same time, only around half (53%) of respondents who had experienced a mental health problem in the previous 12 months had disclosed this to someone at work. The most commonly cited barrier to seeking support was fear of negative employment consequences, specifically concern that disclosing a mental health problem would reduce future work opportunities^[22].

EU policy context 

EU employment policy in the audiovisual sector focuses on strengthening digital transformation and competitiveness against global streaming platforms, as well as improving working conditions for self-employed workers.

In terms of regulation, the Audiovisual Media Services Directive^[54] provides a framework for coordinating national legislation across Member States. The directive aims to ensure an open and fair internal market for audiovisual services, while also promoting cultural diversity and raising the profile of European works. The European Media and Audiovisual Action Plan^[55] complements the directive by setting out a broader strategy to support the sector through the digital shift and in the context of global competition. The plan focuses on strengthening resilience, addressing the sector’s green and digital transitions, fostering innovation, safeguarding Europe’s cultural and technological autonomy, and promoting skill development and an inclusive labour market. Several initiatives have been launched under this action plan, including the CharactHer campaign^[11], which aims to promote diversity and gender equality within the industry.

In terms of employment and working conditions, audiovisual workers are formally covered by general EU labour law instruments, including the 

• Working Time Directive^[56],
• the Work-Life Balance Directive^[57], and 
• the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Framework Directive^[58] and its daughter directives. 

However, these frameworks primarily apply to workers in standard employment relationships. A significant proportion of the audiovisual workforce operates under atypical arrangements, including freelance, project-based and intermittent work, which often fall outside the scope of social protection legislation^[12]. 

Nevertheless, steps have been taken to improve the social and professional conditions of cultural and creative workers. Of particular importance is EU Directive 2024/2831/EU ^[59], which aims to improve working conditions in platform work. The directive sets out the obligation for the EU member states to establish legal criteria for distinguishing between employment and self-employment and shifts the burden of proof onto the platform to demonstrate that an individual is genuinely self-employed^[60].

Also noteworthy is the EU Parliament resolution proposing an EU framework to improve the social and professional conditions of workers in the cultural and creative sector^[61]. This initiative aims to address issues such as precarious employment, lack of social security and challenges related to cross-border mobility. The resolution encourages Member States that have not yet introduced a specific status for artists to do so, with the aim of giving professionals in the cultural and creative sectors better access to adequate social protection.

Social dialogue plays an important complementary role. The Audiovisual Sectoral Social Dialogue Committee^[62] unites trade unions and employers' organisations to negotiate and coordinate actions relating to working conditions, skills and inclusion. In recent years, the Committee has developed joint frameworks on various topics, including:

• Framework of Actions on Diversity and Inclusion in the Audiovisual Sector^[63]
• Framework of Actions on Skills in the Audiovisual and Live Performance Sectors^[64]
• Framework of Actions on Gender Equality^[65], including a Good practice handbook^[66] describing actions and examples from EU member states.

In addition, the Sectoral Social Committee has also developed an EU level OiRA tool^[67] (see below under tools and guidance).

Workplace prevention strategies

Best practice shows that a comprehensive, organisation-wide approach including the wider ecosystem is the most effective way to address psychosocial risks and promote mental health in the workplace^[68].

These approaches are not only recommended, they are also required by the legal obligations set out in the OSH Framework Directive^[58].

Managing psychosocial risks

A comprehensive workplace policy on mental health should define a clear vision and procedures to identify, prevent, and manage psychosocial risks. The key elements are psychosocial risk assessments and appropriate prevention measures to support workers at risk and those with existing mental health problems to help them stay in or return to work after periods of absence^[68]. 

Creating a supportive work environment that fosters trust and cooperation while combatting stigma is essential for ensuring workers can thrive and preventing psychosocial risks. This requires leadership commitment, clear communication, balanced workloads, support from managers and a culture that encourages people to speak up about problems. 

Workers and their representatives must be involved in planning and implementing health and safety measures, including those related to mental health. Worker participation not only fulfils the legal requirement set out in the OSH Framework Directive, but involving workers in designing and implementing safety measures can also improve their practical effectiveness, help foster a sense of ownership and make sure the most pressing aspects are addressed^[69][70].

Employers can take multiple approaches to address work-related psychosocial hazards. These can target either the individual (e.g. counselling, relaxation and meditation training) or the organisation as a whole (e.g. work redesign). From an OSH perspective, organisational-level approaches are particularly important because they address the underlying conditions that create or contribute to workplace hazards, rather than focusing solely on how individuals cope with them. They are also more likely to be efficient, have a wider impact, and be more sustainable, which benefits the workforce as a whole^[71][72].

Examples of organisation-level interventions addressing work-related psychosocial hazards in the audiovisual sector include^{[25] [39] [73]}:

• Integrating psychosocial risks into the different steps of OSH management: raising awareness, identifying work-related psychosocial hazards, assessing risks, taking action, monitoring the outcome, and reviewing the effectiveness of the measures.
• Involving workers in risk assessment and developing actions
• Developing and implementing clear zero-tolerance policies on bullying, harassment, and discrimination
• Organising training for managers and team leaders on how to identify and deal with psychosocial risks at work, and how to discuss these topics with workers
• Providing induction training for all workers to explain how work is organised and what measures are taken to mitigate psychosocial risks
• Encouraging open dialogue and empowering workers to raise concerns on psychosocial issues
• Setting up support structures and providing information to workers on how they can seek help in case of problems
• Managing workload: set clear and achievable timelines, avoid working long hours, irregular or unpredictable hours, build in buffers for unforeseen circumstances, ensure sufficient rest and recovery periods between work shifts
• Developing fair and transparent recruitment and HR-policies
• Ensuring regular and open communication, regarding work organisation, planning, activities, changes, etc.
• Investing in health promotion programmes promoting healthy lifestyles, mindfulness programmes, etc.
• Providing support and return to work plans for workers experiencing mental health problems.

Tools and guidance

There are several tools and guidance documents available to help employers address psychosocial risks in the audiovisual sector. Examples include:

• the Whole picture toolkit developed by the UK Film and TV Charity^[39] offers guidance and templates for the three production stages: pre-production, production and post-production. The first steps of the toolkit include setting up a wellbeing meeting with the senior team and carrying out a mental health stress risk assessment.
• The Brief Guidelines to Support Production published by the Finnish Centre for Occupational Safety^[28] provide tips for both supervisors and workers. The guidelines offer information on how to create a safe and healthy work environment and include good practices for how to deal with psychosocially stressful situations.
• The Irish Safe-to-create website^[74] offers practical resources for employers who want to provide safe and respectful working conditions for those working in the arts and creative sectors. 
• The toolkit available on the sustainability website for the Finnish audiovisual industry^[75] contains guidebooks, checklists and tools to support sustainable choices in the audiovisual sector including information on topics such as responsible recruitment and diversity.
• In Sweden, the Guidelines for Intimate Scenes in Film & Drama Productions^[76] were developed by the Swedish Film & TV Producers Association and the Swedish Union for Performing Arts and Film. These guidelines provide practical support for producers, directors, actors, and crew members in planning and carrying out productions in a safe and professional manner.
• At EU level EU-OSHA offers a practical e-guide to managing psychosocial risks that is particularly designed to respond to the needs of employers and people working in small enterprises (not only the audiovisual sector)^[77].
• The Online interactive Risk Analysis tools (OiRA) help employers with OSH management by identifying risks and deciding on and following up on actions. The OiRA tool for the audiovisual sector^[67]  covers the wide range of OSH risks including psychosocial aspects. There is also a specific OiRA tool available addressing harassment and sexual harassment (non-sector specific)^[78].

Conclusions

The audiovisual sector depends on creativity, passion, and human talent, yet the way work is currently organised often exposes workers to psychosocial risks. Increasingly shaped by short-term projects, freelance work, fragmented production models, and intense competition, the sector is characterised by high workload, insecure employment, long and unpredictable hours, and growing pressure. At the same time, shrinking public funding and platform-driven production models have further reinforced precarious working conditions.

These issues have a significant impact on workers’ mental health and well-being. High stress levels, an imbalance between work and personal life, burnout, anxiety and depression are widely reported across the sector. Meanwhile, bullying, harassment, sexual harassment and discrimination persist, often sustained by a culture of silence and fear of speaking up.

Addressing these challenges requires more than just individual resilience. The most effective response is a comprehensive, organisation-wide approach that integrates psychosocial risks into OSH management, promotes open dialogue, and empowers workers – including self-employed and temporary workers - to raise concerns without fear of retaliation. Creating healthier working environments is essential not only for protecting workers’ well-being, but also for ensuring the long-term creativity, sustainability, and excellence of the audiovisual industry.