Introduction
Commuting refers to the trip from home to the workplace or from the workplace back home. Accidents that occur during these trips are called commuting accidents. In the first part of this article, the risk factors related to commuting accidents are described based on European studies. In the second part, the means to prevent commuting accidents will be discussed.
Definition and data
The term “commutation" (latin: "commutatio, a changing") is generally described as "a passing from one state to another"[1]. Nowadays commuting refers to the trip from home to the workplace or from the workplace back home. Commuting accidents, defined as ‘accidents that occur during the normal journey to or from home and place of work’, are excluded from the definition of ’accidents at work’ used by Eurostat (European Statistics on Accidents at Work - ESAW[2]). However, in many countries, the Workers' compensation system covers also commuting accidents while in other countries commuting accidents are a specific category of work-related traffic accidents [3] [4].
There are key differences between commuters and professional road users[3]. Professional road users are on the road to carry out work-related tasks and use the roads during working hours. They often do not have a choice of how to travel. In contrast, commuters can choose their preferred method of travel, such as driving, riding, walking or using public transport. During commuting, road users are not working but instead are outside working hours. Commuters may feel pressured by time due to work-related factors such as working long hours, fatigue, or stress, but it is also influenced by personal time management or their choice of transport, rather than being solely attributable to workplace factors[3].
Statistics show that in the EU in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, four in five employed people (79 %) mainly worked at their employer's or own premises and needed to commute on a regular basis. More than half of the workers travelled less than 30 minutes from home to work[5]. Figures from Germany and Belgium show that the number of commuting accidents dropped sharply in 2020 and 2021 due to the pandemic. Between 2022 and 2024, however, the numbers rose again, returning to 2019 levels[6] [7][8].
In contrast to workplace accidents, which show a steady downward trend over the last decades, commuting accidents do not seem to follow the same pattern. As a result, commuting accidents represent an increasingly large share of all occupational accidents. In Belgium, for example, commuting accounted for one in five occupational accidents in 2023[6].
Risk factors for commuting accidents
The following chapter will try to provide an overview of the most typical risk factors involved in commuting accidents in Europe.
Studies show that women are more likely to be involved in commuting accidents compared to men. A Spanish study analysed 266,646 traffic-related and 168,129 non-traffic-related injuries over the period 2006–2010[9]. The results showed that women were far more likely to be injured while commuting than men.
In a study carried out in Finland their commuting accident frequency was found to be 1.4 times higher than that of men[10]. The frequency of commuting accidents has been shown to increase with age, especially for women. Women over 50 years of age have a 2.5 times higher frequency of suffering a commuting accident than men in the same age group[1]. However, men are more likely to be involved in fatal car crashes than women[11][12] while women are more likely to be injured while walking at work[13].
Age
The likelihood and severity of commuting accidents are influenced by the worker’s age. For example, in France the highest number of commuting accidents (not adjusted for employment levels occurred in the age category between 25-34 years[14]. A study analysing commuting accident data from a large chemical company in Germany between 1995 and 20228 also found an increased injury rate among those younger than 30. This could be due to the use of riskier modes of transport (e.g. motorised two-wheelers), a lack of driving experience, a tendency to take more risks at a younger age, and an increase in multitasking (e.g. using a mobile phone while driving)[8].
On the other hand, commuting accidents among older workers tend to be more serious[14]. A large Spanish study analysing 724,596 occupational traffic crashes (2009–2019)[11] confirmed this trend. It showed that crashes among workers under 35 were more likely to result in minor injuries, whereas accidents involving workers over 55 were more often serious, very serious, or fatal.
Profession
It has been shown in several European studies that the commuting accident density varies from one profession to another. In the French study, women working in health and community service professions had a three times higher risk of being in a commuting accident than those in other professions, whereas male sales reps had a 6-fold higher risk to suffer a road crash while commuting[15]. In a study in German chemical industry workers, apprentices were found to have an increased rate of commuting accidents[16]. Electrical workers, engineering and structural metal workers and leisure time guidance workers had the highest incidence of commuting accidents among Finnish municipal workers[17].
Transport mode
In Sweden, two-wheelers such as motorcycles were the most dangerous vehicles for commuting trips. Cars and pedestrians had almost the same risk level, whereas public transportation was the safest vehicle for commuters. With public transportation, the most dangerous part of the trip was the walk to the stop or station[1] [18]. In France, cars were involved in 62% of commuting accidents[14] and one in every four commuting victim was on a motorised two-wheeler[15].
However, a study based on data from a large German chemical company between 1995 and 2022[8] found that approximately half of commuting accidents involved bicycles, while around a quarter involved pedestrians. This contrasts with the company's mobility survey data, which show that almost 75% of workers commute by car. This means that accidents involving bicycles, motorised two-wheelers, and pedestrians are significantly overrepresented.
Data from the Belgian occupational accident insurers show that soft mobility modes (e.g. bicycles, e-scooters) are playing an increasingly prominent role in commuting accidents[19]. Between 2019 and 2024, the number of such accidents in Belgium rose by 14%, increasing their share of all commuting accidents from 34% in 2019 to 43% in 2024. Bicycles remain by far the most common mode involved, accounting for 34% of commuting accidents. Other forms of soft mobility still represent a smaller share — electric scooters (5%), electric bicycles (2%), and speed pedelecs (2%) — but their use is growing rapidly. Particularly striking is the rise of e-scooter accidents, which increased more than sixfold over five years, from 0.8% of commuting accidents in 2019 to 5.3% in 2024[19].
Environmental factors
In a German study of chemical company workers, the peak hours for commuting accidents were in the morning between 6.00 a.m. and 8.00 a.m. and in the late afternoon 5.00 p.m. and 7.00 p.m. Most of these commuting accidents took place on Mondays and Tuesdays[16]. Almost two out of three commuting accidents (61%) occurred on the way from the residence to the workplace in Germany and the remainder (39%) occurred on the way back to the home, but these were responsible for longer periods of work inability[16]. According to a study conducted in Gothenburg, Sweden, the trip from home to work exhibited a 40% higher risk of commuting accident than the trip back to home[18]. These differences in the likelihood of accidents to and from work may be due to poor weather conditions, or darkness, and the need to hurry. Commuting accidents also most likely to occur during the rush hours, when most vehicles (cars, buses, trains, etc.) are in service.
Furthermore, commuting accidents occur more frequently during the winter and in adverse weather conditions. A study that used daily weather condition data and administrative accident data in Italy[20] estimated that a day with an average temperature below 0°C increases the rate of commuting accidents by over 60% compared to an average temperature of 10–12°C. The increased risk of accidents during commuting is due to the significant impact of extremely low temperatures on road conditions, such as increased slipperiness due to frost and/or rain[20]. Similar results were found in a German study which cross-referenced data on occupational accidents recorded between 2017 and 2023 with local weather information[21]. The results showed that, when temperatures dropped to 0°C or below, the number of commuting accidents increased by approximately 20% for road traffic accidents and by 92% for non-road accidents (e.g. slips, trips and falls).
Work-related factors
Studies show that high work demands appear to be associated with unsafe commuting[22] [23] which increases the risk of commuting accidents. Long working hours and extended shifts increase the risk of unsafe driving and commuting accidents, especially after night shifts[22].
Psychosocial stressors can also affect commuting safety behaviours[23] [24]. Workers who experience increased job strain by the end of the working day are more likely to encounter commuting stress and exhibit unsafe commuting behaviour[24]. Similarly, workers who experience incivility at work are more likely to display aggressive driving behaviour on their commute home[25].
Preventing commuting accidents
The following chapter provides an overview of measures to address commuting safety risks. These include measures to ensure better safety and visibility, check-ups and maintenance schedules, road safety training and awareness raising. Furthermore, employers are starting to take responsibility in assessing risks and providing guidelines for workers.
Risk assessment and commuting safety policy
Framework Directive 89/391/EEC[26] on occupational safety and health (OSH) obliges employers to carry out risk assessments and implement appropriate prevention measures to protect their workers' safety and health. The Directive does not cover commuting and in most countries, employers are not obliged to include commuting safety into OSH risk assessments[3]. However, integrating commuting risks into OSH management is considered good practice. By adopting a commuting safety policy aimed at protecting workers during their commutes, organisations can proactively reduce the number of accidents and the associated costs[27]. Standard ISO 39002 provides guidelines for implementing commuting safety management based on clear objectives and a company policy[27], Companies must make sure that workers and managers are aware of the company's policy on commuting safety. Companies should establish a written road safety code for the drivers. For example, the company should emphasise that
- employees should never drive faster than road conditions safely allow
- employees should respect speed limits at all times (including variable limits and temporary limits at road works)[28]
- employees should be fit to drive
Traffic environment and visibility
Weather is often a factor involved in commuting accidents, particularly early in the morning, after a cold night. Changes in weather conditions can alter the road surface, which can increase the risk of skidding, thus increasing the distance needed to stop a vehicle. Icy road surfaces also increase risks for pedestrians and cyclists. The most effective way to prevent skidding is the good maintenance of roads. However, another possibility is to utilise public transport when the roads are icy or work from home.
Inadequate visibility is another risk factor when travelling to or from work. This can be due to various factors including adverse weather conditions, icy or fogged-up vehicle windows, poor lighting and a lack of daylight. Other visibility risks are drivers' impaired or weakened eyesight. Drivers should clean their car windows carefully and check that the windshield wipers and car lights are working properly.
Streetlights improve visibility in the dark, and this is why companies should ensure that roads leading to the workplace are well lit. Wearing reflective clothing and accessories improves the visibility of pedestrians and cyclists thus increasing their safety on the road. Technical preventive measures
Safety devices and aspects
Wearing a helmet decreases the risk of head injuries while cycling, roller-skating, riding an e-scooter and motorcycling[29] [30]. On average, wearing a bicycle helmet has been found to reduce the risk of fatal head or brain injury by 71% in the event of a fall or crash[31]. Some companies in in Finland, recommend that their workers wear and will sometimes cover the cost of purchasing them. If workplaces provide bicycles for their workers, the condition of the bicycles should be checked regularly.
Workers should take safety aspects into consideration when buying any vehicles. For cars the Euroncap programme[32] provides up-to-date and comprehensive online information regarding the safety of cars and the protection of the users.
For pedestrians, slippery roads and pavements increase the risk of slipping and falling. The most effective prevention method to avoid slips is to have an anti-slip sole or to wear separate anti-slip grid pads on the shoes. However, these anti-slip grid pads or shoes can damage the flooring of interiors, and they also can be slippery on indoors floors. Therefore, there needs to be the possibility for taking the anti-slip shoes or separate grip-pads off before continuing further into the building such as placing chairs in the lobby next to the entrance. At times companies financially support the acquiring of these anti-slip grip pads or anti-slip shoes for their employees.
Regular checks and maintenance
In addition to regular general checks, workers should be encouraged to carry out pre-start checks of their vehicles.
Maintaining safe vehicles is crucial for commuting safety. Workers should ensure that their vehicles are maintained, and tests for motor vehicle safety should be performed annually. Since tyres are important for safety, especially when braking, they must meet safety requirements. They should be checked before driving and replaced by new tyres when they show signs of wear. Tyre pressure needs to be checked regularly as well. Seasonal changes in road surfaces may necessitate the use of different tyres for summer and winter.
Bicycles require also maintenance especially in spring after the winter break. For example, bicyclists should check that their brakes are working properly, and whether the tyres require more air pressure. The chains must be well-oiled. In many countries, lights and reflective materials are required on the side and back of the bicycle to increase the visibility.
Organisational measures
Training and awareness-raising
Companies can help ensure that their workers have the necessary skills for safe commuting by providing training. Car drivers and vulnerable road users have different training needs, but traffic regulations are the same for all road users. It is important that all road users know and respect traffic regulations. Road safety campaigns can maintain and increase awareness.
Managing time pressure and fatigue
The trip to work is usually done on a tight schedule. Time pressure can lead to risk situations on the roads, careless behaviour and speeding. High speed increases the risk of serious, even fatal, road crashes. Fatigue is another well-known traffic accident risk. When drivers and bicyclists do not sleep enough, or have spent long periods awake, they are more tired and less alert.
Companies can improve safety during commutes by implementing flexible work arrangements (flexible working hours, telework) or promoting the use of public transport (e.g. financial incentives). This enables workers to avoid travelling during rush hour. To avoid haste on the road, routes and schedules for road travel should be planned in such a way that it is possible to take breaks during long journeys and adhere to speed limits. Both weather conditions and rush hour traffic have to be taken into account when planning schedules. Not only may time pressure lead to speeding, but it may also increase workers' stress and risk of suffering a commuting accident.
Drivers can prevent fatigue by setting out on a journey when they are well rested. In addition to professional drivers, the risk of fatigue is also present for non-professional drivers, and this should be taken into consideration after a long working day and possibly a long drive home. For shift workers, especially those working nights, the journey home from work may be dangerous due to tiredness and lack of alertness
Challenges of monotonous driving
Driving is a monotonous task, especially on motorways. At the same time however, it requires a high degree of concentration. Drivers often drive faster on motorways than on rural or city roads and high speed increases the risk of a crash. At increasing speeds, the driver needs to be even more alert. The fact that driving is a monotonous task may reduce the drivers' attention to the traffic environment; and this can lower the reaction time of the driver. Drinking coffee, having breaks and listening to the radio are ways to prevent tiredness when driving.
Conclusions
The journey to the workplace is often the most hazardous part of the workday[10], because in many professions the risk of commuting accidents is higher than that of workplace accidents. Despite this, commuting is generally not included within the legal obligations for OSH management in most countries. Nevertheless, companies can improve health and safety by adopting policies that combine organisational and technical measures such as flexible work arrangements, training and awareness-raising.
