Introduction
Organisational ergonomics focuses on the optimisation of socio-technical systems, including their organisational structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include communication, team resource management, work design, work systems, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organisations, telework, and quality management)[1] .
This article covers the following topics: system ergonomics, participatory ergonomics, job design and task allocation, and work schedules.
Background
Work design is defined as ‘the content and organisation of one’s work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities[2]. Designing quality work is an important strategy for addressing challenges such as an ageing workforce and the increasing use of digital technologies, as well as promoting the well-being of workers[3]. In the field of ergonomics, work design focuses on creating safe and sustainable environments that optimise well-being and performance[4].
Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of the interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theoretical principles, data and methods to design in order to optimise human well-being and overall system performance (definition International Ergonomics Association (IEA)[1].
Ergonomics considers not only the physical aspects of work, but also the cognitive and psychosocial ones.
The IEA together with the International Labour Organization (ILO) have developed the following guidelines[4] for the design and management of work systems
- Use a systems approach
- Consider all relevant characteristics of workers
- Apply participatory ergonomics methodologies
- Incorporate proactive measures to ensure worker safety, health, wellbeing, and sustainability
- Tailor ergonomic design and management of work systems to characteristics of the organisation
- Sustain a continuous learning process for evaluation, training, refinement, and redesign
System ergonomics
The term ‘system ergonomics’ implies that a systematic approach is used for the design or redesign of work situations. It is a comprehensive approach that considers the entire system including the organisation, tasks, equipment, and environment to design or modify work to fit the worker,
A design or a redesign project based on the system ergonomics approach, comprises of the following steps[5].
Orientation
- What is the starting point? What are the main issues? Who will be involved? Who is the project coordinator? How will the project be organised? What are the limitations?
Analysis
- System analysis: what is the goal of the work activities and processes: what must be achieved in terms of quantity and quality?
- Task analysis: which tasks are required to achieve the goals? In this analysis an analysis of bottlenecks is done as well.
Design
- Determine a programme of requirements.
- Task allocation: which tasks can be best allocated to technology (machines, ICT, robotics, AI), and which to humans? Both have different capacities and limitations. Consider alternatives and choose the best solution.
- Design of tasks and jobs, including organisational aspects (e.g. level of education, training; teamwork; work schedules; flexible solutions).
- Testing in a virtual environment using simulations (many kinds possible), mock ups, models.
- Design of interfaces between humans and technology, and of communication.
- Adaptation of the designs
Two major stages can be distinguished: the global design, followed by the detailed design.
Implementation
- Building, roll-out, integration. If required: training of staff.
Evaluation:
- How well does the system do what it should? If necessary, adaptations are considered.
Orientation
It is essential that the project coordinator uses specific and detailed questions. Do the questions cover all the aspects? Will the objective be achieved with these questions? Would there be an alternative? Ergonomists are excellent in questioning and in thinking ahead. Each question of the ergonomists is in fact already a consult. Project limitations must also be addressed such as budget, timeline and available staff.
Analysis
The goal of the work activities and the system must be well defined in specifications for input (raw materials, information, parts) and output (products, texts, task performance e.g. in control rooms). Both quantitative (quantities, numbers, measurable quality) and qualitative aspects (e.g. non-measurable quality, image, growth of experience) need to get attention. The next step is the task analysis. In an existing situation the actual tasks are described into detail. Typical questions begin with ‘how’ or ‘why’. The task analysis often already provides an insight that things can be done differently. Usually the analysis has four levels, but in complex situations there may be more. The four levels are: goal; sub goal; tasks; manoeuvres[5]. For instance: the goals of a traffic control room are efficient flow of traffic; a sub-goal can be minimising exhaust gases; observing screens and communication are examples of tasks; taking action by activating traffic signs or by blocking lanes are manoeuvres.
The inventory of bottlenecks is another part of the analysis. Here one needs to be as specific as possible in order to determine the real bottleneck. E.g. what is the cause of physical work strain? The loads can be too heavy for manual handling by one person. But what is the real cause? Is it that lifting is inefficient as it should be done by two workers, while all other tasks are performed individually (organisational bottleneck). Or is there not enough space to lift together? Principles of solutions can be determined in the analysis. Once the bottlenecks are clear, potential solutions can be identified. There is a risk that a solution is selected too easily. For instance, a proposal to improve the situation by organising training instead of redesigning the task to reduce the workload.
Design
Based on the orientation and the analysis, the programme requirements can be determined. These are the specifications that the system must meet, such as system performance, costs, the level of education of staff. The next step is the allocation of tasks to technology (machines, ICT, robotics, AI), or humans. Both have different capacities and limitations, and different costs. Consider what the consequences are for human tasks and jobs: are these complete, not too complex, can these be performed for a whole working day, during a whole working life? Are there alternatives? Is the technology available, or shall it be developed? Choose the best solution for humans and the system. Then tasks and jobs are designed into detail including organisational aspects such as the required level of education and training. Aspects of teamwork are considered as well as work schedules and flexible solutions. The basic design can be tested in any stage. Simulations can be done at all levels, varying from a discussion using only paper or white board to virtual environments (software, mock ups, models). If all is expected to work well, the design of interfaces between humans and technology and of communication can be detailed. A new testing phase will follow in order to check if the interfaces work as intended. Adaptation must be done if problems are discovered. The design process is led by designers, with ergonomists playing a consultancy role.
Implementation
At this stage, all solutions, installations, workplace equipment, and organisational changes are implemented. Training is organised for staff if necessary.
The ergonomist should remain closely involved during the implementation and pilot phases, as many smaller issues are likely to arise. For example: project team designed an ergonomic cabin for a new tram. The cabin was deliberately made spacious to accommodate the instructor. However, during the first pilot runs, it became clear that passengers tend to enter the instructor’s space, distracting him/her. To address this issue, the team decided to install a door as the optimal solution. It is important that such adjustments remain in line with the design principles.
Participatory ergonomics
Background
Participatory ergonomics is a term used to describe the involvement of those who undertake work and tasks in the design and redesign of the system in which their work and tasks take place (and its components)[6]. Participatory ergonomics programmes seek to maximise the involvement of the workers, based on the simple fact that each worker is an expert in their own job. The participatory approach to ergonomics relies on actively involving workers in implementing ergonomic knowledge, procedures and changes with the intention of improving working conditions, safety, productivity, quality, morale and/or comfort[7]. The need to understand how work is actually carried out, rather than how it is designed or prescribed, has led ergonomists to recognise the importance of working with the people who actually do the work[6]. This approach provides ergonomists with a more comprehensive understanding of how work tasks are performed, how they differ between individuals, and how they may evolve in response to other system requirements and demands. This approach also facilitates the identification of ideas that individual members of the workforce may have to enhance system performance[6].
Another important argument for involving workers in the design process is that it improves the implementation process. Changes are often not successfully put into practice. Reasons for this include:
- Workers are doubtful that the proposed changes will be feasible, given that previous changes were obstructed.
- No need for change is felt, no sense of urgency.
- Previous changes had little effect.
- Proposed changes are simplified, for instance due to budget constraints.
The participation of workers in all steps of the change process provides a sound basis for acceptance and successful implementation.
Participatory process
A participatory process consists of 9 steps[8]:
- Introduction
- Analysis
- Generation of ideas
- Selection of best ideas
- Preparation and development
- Testing
- Adaptation
- Implementation
- Evaluation.
A successful participatory ergonomics programme should be based on the workers’ needs[9] and requires a positive implementation climate as well as clearly defined roles and responsibilities9. Furthermore, the success of the programme depends on sufficient resource allocation and commitment and support from senior management. The resources required include:
- Time to develop the programme
- Time to develop and implement solutions
- Financial resources to make meaningful changes in the workplace
- Management support for the ergonomics team members.
- A dedicated project group to oversee the change process
- Input from all workers to identify bottlenecks, ideas and support theimplementation[7] [8].
Job design and task allocation
Background
Job design aims to specify the contents, methods and relationships of jobs to satisfy the technological and organisational requirements as well as the personal needs of job holders. It meets the needs of both employer and workers. Both individual human characteristics as group characteristics are considered. A good job design is in line with the best option in the Hierarchy of control, as it will basically eliminate risks. Jobs need to be complete, in order to meet human’s needs. Key elements are[10]:
- Autonomy: the worker himself has influence on the way the tasks are performed;
- Feedback: the worker gets information about the individual performance and the system performance, including aspects like client satisfaction;
- Significance of the task within the extend of the whole company or organisation;
- Completeness: a position must consist of preparatory tasks, executive functions, and supportive tasks;
A task can be best defined as a piece of assigned work expected to be done within a certain time. It is important to strictly and thoroughly identify tasks that need completion. Motivation describes forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. The best jobs are those in which individuals are compelled, excited, and passionate to do their work. Anyway, it is essential to design jobs that motivate workers. Resource allocation occurs when organisations decide to appropriate or allocate certain resources to specific jobs, tasks, or issues they are facing. Jobs should be designed to maximise the efficiency of workers or departments while ensuring the health, safety and well-being of staff. Organisations need to use the resources and creativity of their workers effectively and efficiently. In job design it is necessary to identify and structure jobs in a way that the company’s resources are being efficiently used. Appropriate resource allocation allows large organisations to foster and develop innovation in their workforce. Reward systems also play a role in job design. Reward systems include compensation, bonuses, pay rises, job security, benefits, and various other methods of rewarding workers. An outline or description of reward packages needs to be established while designing jobs.
Five important job elements that motivate workers and stimulate performance are: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and job feedback. Three different psychological states determine how an worker reacts to job characteristics: experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results.
How to design jobs?
It starts with questions like:
- What are the aims and objectives of the task?
- How will the objective be achieved?
- Where will the task take place?
- When will the task be performed (continuously, nighttime, daytime)?
- Who will perform the task (skills, training, and competence)?
- Why the task is required – overall context of the activity?
The ideal task design will identify key task requirements and allocate the task roles between human and technology to optimise strengths and minimise weaknesses. It involves allocating functions by defining what humans and machines are best suited to do. This balance will also be influenced by the criticality of the task, the level of reliability required and the urgency of recovering from errors or malfunctions. A basic procedure for allocating functions is included in EN ISO 11064-1[11]
Checklist for jobs
- According to the Dutch WEBA system (well-being at work)[12], the following characteristics and requirements are essential for healthy and qualitative jobs: Jobs are complete, and do include:
- Involvement in the planning of work and the order of tasks
- Involvement in how the work is performed:
- End control of own work
- The job includes a 'complete range of tasks', including execution, preparation, support and management, allowing workers to resolve issues with assigned autonomy and external control[13]. Non-short-cycle tasks: Short-cycle tasks suggest that work is repetitive and monotonous, which can lead to physical and/or mental health risks. Such tasks should be limited within a job[13]. Cognitive complexity of the job[14]:
- A balanced mix of complex tasks and routine/simple tasks
- Autonomy and variation: the job must allow a degree of autonomy in terms of how tasks are carried out, including in regard to pace, method and order, as well as work location[13].
- Opportunities for contact: allowing functional and social contacts with other
- people and the workplace[13][14]
- Organising tasks: the possibility to organise functional contacts, participate in meetings, arrange help and advice (by colleagues or management) to effectively carry out tasks and solve problems[13][14]
- Information: sufficient information about the tasks, goals,
- progress and feedback on the results.
Work schedules, shift work
Although much of the work is still carried out over a five day week, globalisation, shifting demands in society (“always-on”), and technological advancements have changed our world to a 24/7 economy. Digital applications make it possible to work at any time and in any place. While this flexibility can help workers to better balance work and private lives, it also blurs the boundary between the two[15]. One common drawback is the tendency for work to spill over into personal time, for example through emails being sent to mobile devices. Proper rest periods are essential for recovery from work.
Ideally, working days should not exceed 9 hours, as longer shifts are associated with reduced productivity and increased safety risks[16]. The same applies to extended periods of work without rest. However, taking short breaks during a shift has been shown to reduce fatigue and sleepiness significantly[17].
Shift work is widespread across many sectors. Given the aging workforce, the traditional practice of exempting older workers from night shifts has become increasingly difficult to maintain. One alternative approach could be to use years of full shift work experience as the criterion for relief from night duties, rather than age. Additionally, enabling teams to self-scheduling can enhance acceptance and support for shift schedules. From a health perspective, night shifts can be very demanding. Sleep disorders and digestion problems often improve significantly when workers stop working night shifts[18]. It is recommended to limit the number of consecutive night shifts to three[19]. Additionally, shift start times have an influence on vigilance, and it is recommended that morning shifts should ideally not start before 7:00 a.m.
4. Conclusions
The world of work is changing rapidly, but even in an era of advanced automation and intelligent systems, human labour remains essential. Since automation typically replaces individual tasks rather than entire jobs, the quality of human–technology interaction and good work design have become more critical than ever[20]. As a result, organisational work design plays a key role in preventing safety and health problems while ensuring optimal system performance.
