Introduction
Digitalisation is transforming the world of work and requires new and updated solutions regarding health and safety at work. Recent developments such as artificial intelligence, social medias, new communication tools and a significant increase in working remotely results in new opportunities for workers and employers, but also new challenges and risks for workers’ safety and health. One of these challenges is that new technologies provide new ways for third parties (patients, clients, customers, parents or other members of the public) to perpetrate violence and harassment towards workers. It also provides new means for violence and harassment committed by work colleagues, which falls outside the scope of the present article.
Work-related violence and the digitalisation of work
Work-related violence by third parties can be defined as any incident in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work by individuals from outside the organisation. It includes physical attacks as well as verbal abuse or threats perpetrated face to face, online or on the phone.
The changing digital landscape may increase the risk of work-related violence and harassment in many ways. For example, the digitalisation of services may increase the expectations of customers in terms of speed and efficiency. Customer or clients may also experience frustration over poorly designed systems, further increasing the risk of violent behaviours and scapegoating. These risks are further compounded by the introduction of chatbot or other automated systems for customer support, as easy enquiries and cases are dealt with by algorithms while workers are left with the complicated ones. Social media and messaging apps, on the other end, make it much easier to organise and escalate presential harassment towards workers or other representatives of the company. In the era of messaging apps, emails and social medias, technology has provided abusers with new means of threatening or abusing people, including in the context of work. Furthermore, work-related harassment can spread to workers’ private social media accounts – extending its impact outside of working hours.
What is work-related cyberviolence and harassment?
Cyberviolence encompasses a wide range of harmful behaviours that often exploit the anonymity and reach of online spaces[1][2]. Examples of such behaviours include antagonizing someone by posting offensive or provocative comments on the internet (trolling), sending sexually explicit messages, photographs or videos electronically (sexting), searching for and publishing private or identifying information (doxing), preying on someone online by harassing, scaring, or threatening of physical harm (cyberstalking), gaining unauthorized access to someone’s data or device (hacking), or posting abusive comments on a person’s work or social media[3]. Young women workers may be disproportionately affected by digital forms of sexual harassment, threats and abuse.
Not entirely new to the world of work, cyberviolence should rather be framed as the extension of a preexisting risk – that is work-related violence. For example, The UK Health and Safety Executive defines work-related violence as: ‘Any incident in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work […] this can include verbal abuse or threats, including face to face, online and via telephone, physical attacks’[4].
Workers can be targeted on social media not just by resentful clients that they have had contact with, but also by the wider public. The ease and speed with which such attacks can be made is the real difference to hate phone calls or letters. Anonymity also empowers the perpetrator by placing distance between them and the victim while at the same time protecting the perpetrator from the consequences of his acts. By enabling rapid information sharing, digital technologies also allow a rapid escalation of attacks on the victim, sometimes coming from multiple perpetrators. Typical examples of cyberviolence by members of the wider public include trolling of journalists, online attacks on telecoms workers related to online misinformation about 5G networks and mobile phone antenna, and online harassment of health care workers by individuals and groups opposed to vaccination.
Consequences of work-related cyberviolence
According to Work Safe Australia ‘Behaviours such as violence, aggression, bullying and sexual harassment can have significant short and long-term impacts on a person’s physical and psychological health, including when carried out online or via digital technologies’[5]. Mental health impacts can include low self-esteem, suicide ideation, rage and frustration[6], as well as post-traumatic stress disorder[7]. The negative impacts of workplace cyberbullying intensify with time, and the victim is in danger of enduring extreme stress, anxiety, and poor mental health. Moreover, work-related cyberviolence may escalate to affect a person’s physical safety[8]. While research on the organizational impact of cyberviolence is scarce, known effects of third-party violence include increased absenteeism, decreased worker motivation, reduced productivity and recruitment costs if affected workers decide to leave[9][10].
How widespread is cyberviolence?
An EU-OSHA Foresight study from 2018[11] identified that cyberbullying was already commonplace in many workplaces across numerous sectors and was on the rise. The authors suggested that greater reliance on the internet and social media for work purposes could increase cyberbullying by competitors, peers, stakeholders or cyber trolls. The report also suggested that a shift from face-to-face to virtual communication could result in a loss of communication skills, which in turn could foster a negative communication tone and hostile language.
According to EU-OSHA’s ESENER survey of businesses[12], nearly 60% of businesses reported violence as a risk factor present in their establishment in 2019, up from 54% in 2014. It is not known to what extent digitalisation or cyberviolence in particular may have contributed to this increase.
In 2022, EU-OSHA's OSH Pulse survey[13] of 27,000 workers suggested that the use of some types of digital technologies increases exposure to violence and harassment. Specifically, respondents reporting work-related violence and harassment were more likely to use desktop computers than those not using desktop computers (64% compared to 59%). Again, it is not known to what extent this heightened exposure relates to cyberviolence or bullying.
One European study[14] involving social partners in health, education, local and regional public administration, commerce and private security sectors asked about the extent of work-related cyberviolence. The study included a survey asking social partner organisations what the main forms of work-related violence and harassment were faced by workers in their sector. Cyber harassment was reported as the primary forms of work-related violence by 11% of the respondents, same as for sexual harassment but behind verbal harassment (15%), psychological harassment and physical violence (13%). Only 45% of respondents reported policies or agreements addressing work-related violence from a gender perspective, even though findings suggested that women are disproportionately affected by work-related violence. Finally, a literature review highlights that cyberviolence affected 14% - 20% of university employees (UK), 22% of teachers (Czech Republic), 22% of journalists (Sweden), and 72% of public servants (Australia).
Women disproportionally affected
Some data suggests that women are disproportionately affected[15]. According to a global study by the UN Generation Equality Action Coalition on Technology and Innovation (2021), 38% of women reported personal experiences with online violence[16]. Young female workers are particularly affected by digital forms of sexual harassment, threats and abuse. For example, according to a 2021 study, online harassment and abuse of women journalists is particularly prevalent when the reporting concerns politics, law, economics, sports, women's rights and feminism, tends to be more severe than that suffered by men, and is likely to include threats of rape or sexually graphic and offensive images, and threats against family members[17].
Cyberharassment in the metaverse
The metaverse is a three-dimensional virtual space in which users can interact with objects and other users through a digital avatar. Although practical work applications remain limited, it has been suggested that these immersive environments could shape the future for remote working.
In 2024, the European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) carried out a brief review[18][19] which identified possible physical, ergonomic, safety, biological and psychosocial hazards stemming from these immersive environments. Among the psychosocial issues, the review highlights report of users experiencing cyber harassment and even sexual “cyber-assault” in the metaverse. In addition to harassment and trolling, cyberbullying in metaverse can be in the form of a physical aggression with the development of sensing technologies. Haptic technology creates the physical sensation of ‘touching’ objects and, therefore, the sense of physical contact between two avatars. The review also highlights that users tend to behave in a way that match their avatar’s appearance. Known as the ‘Proteus’ effect, this is suggested to magnify cyberbullying in immersive environments – where every interaction is mediated by an avatar. It could have implications for third-party violence, as these immersive environments may be used by companies to showcase their products and interact with clients. The author concludes by stressing that immersive technologies need to be made safe by design. If their use is to be considered in the work setting, risk assessment is needed to determine whether their use is appropriate and to implement appropriate preventive measures.
Prevention and management of work-related cyberviolence by third parties
The prevention of work-related cyberviolence and harassment by third parties should be approached in the same systematic way as other forms of work-related violence, based on risk assessment and with worker involvement. It needs an organisational response. Policies, procedures and protocols on work-related violence need to include cyberviolence.
As with all forms of work-related violence, the aims are:
- Preventing acts of cyberviolence and harassment
- Stopping escalation and limiting consequences
- Supporting the victim
Safework Australia[20] suggest the following 10 steps to address online abuse in the workplace:
- Create a safe and secure online work environment, e.g. use security settings and the tools on online services to block, mute or remove abusive content
- Change the way work is done to minimise risk through systems, policies and procedures, e.g. identify and manage the causes of issues that generate abuse; design work to prevent staff from engaging with abusive material and have clear procedures for workers to protect themselves and respond to online abuse.
- Moderate content on the organisation’s online platforms, e.g. through guidelines for acceptable content.
- Report abusive content. Contact the police for serious cases.
- Implement workplace polices, e.g. set policies for the appropriate use of online platforms, phones and other technologies, and outline how incidents will be prevented and responded to.
- Provide information and training, e.g. on dealing with difficult people, online safety. Talk to workers about where, when and how work-related online abuse may happen, and what is being done to prevent it.
- Create a positive and respectful workplace culture.
- Address online abuse within the workplace.
- Encourage workers to report online abuse – and support them when they raise concerns
- Talk to workers – to help identify where, when and why online abuse may happen and obtain ideas on how to prevent it.
Australia’s eSafety Guide[21] provides information on popular professional platforms and apps (such as LinkedIn and Zoom) about how to protect information and report inappropriate content. Other pages on the eSafety website provide information on protecting your identity[22] and report abuse[23]. While the reporting is linked to Australian law, the information on collecting evidence is generally applicable.
A survey can be helpful to find out the extent of cases of work-related cyberviolence, covering where and when incidents occurred, how and by whom. A reporting system and a feedback mechanism are needed so that incidents are detected, support is given to the victim and follow-up measures are taken, for example, with the police and/or the technology or social media companies. Occurrences should be investigated using a no-blame culture, focusing on lessons to be learned and updating protocols and procedures if necessary. In any circumstances, the worker should never be left to deal with incidents alone.
Training can be provided with, for example, good practice on how to stay safe online, how to check and improve password security, how to check if you are being targeted online (a particular feature of some forms of cyberviolence, such as online stalking or trolling, is that the worker may be unaware that they are being targeted). Information and training should include supervisors and managers and their role.
Policies should be developed and regularly reviewed with the involvement of workers. Reviewing and updating procedures is crucial for cyberviolence considering the pace with which the digital environment is changing.
As for any risks, preventive measures need to be tailored to the type of work and work circumstances. The sections below provide two brief examples of profession particularly prone to work-related cyberviolence, highlighting the types of measures that can be taken in these settings.
Teaching staff
In schools and colleges, abuse to staff can come from pupils and students but also from parents or the wider public. To protect teaching staff, schools need to have clear rules and procedures covering: access to the teacher’s phone number, email address or accounts on social medias; safeguarding passwords and other sensitive information; taking action if something is posted on a website or social media platform; the use of phones at school and during classes; procedures following incidents, including out of school hours; and setting a school behavioural policy with rules for both pupils and parents.
It is important to make sure that students, staff and parents are informed about behaviour codes and measures, as abuse can come from parents as well.
The European Trade Union Committee for Education (ETUCE) first addressed cyberviolence towards teachers in 2010 [24].
Journalists
For most journalists, having an online presence is essential to develop, publish, and promote their work. Female journalists are known to receive some of the heaviest abuse, with research showing links between online violence and offline attacks, often in the context of stalking[25][26].
Pen America[27] have developed a best practice manual for media employers to protect and support workers facing online abuse. It stresses the importance of taking an organisational approach to cyberviolence and creating a supportive culture, with proper risk assessment and strong worker involvement. Practical recommendations comprise: including family members in the risk assessment; setting a writing policy to ensure headlines are not deliberately inflammatory; a content moderation policy where readers will not be able to post comments for certain types of articles, for example, if the topic is controversial; training in digital security and online abuse ‘self-defence’; following-up on incidents with social media companies; issuing a public statement of support for the employee; offering temporary respite where someone else monitors the account of the person being targeted, reporting, blocking or muting offenders.
Domestic violence
Domestic violence can be a workplace issue if the perpetrator threatens violence or intimidates a partner or family member at the workplace, including via emails or phone calls[28]. If the perpetrator works in the same workplace as the victim, they may use internal messaging systems to harass their co-worker victim[29]. ILO Convention 190 covers domestic violence as a work-related issue.
Domestic violence should be included in workplace policies and measures to address violence[30][31], notably on aspects related to digital communication and cyberharassment. Additionally, domestic violence to teleworkers should be covered in teleworking policies.
There are simple steps that employers can take to protect teleworkers who are or may be suffering domestic abuse[32][33]. For example, it is common for abusive partners to monitor the victim’s communication. In this context, providing work phones and laptops may help to provide more autonomy and digital security for the victim.
Conclusions
Cyberviolence represents a new form of a well-known preexisting risk, that is work-related violence. As such, it poses new challenges to the prevention and management of violence at work. The speed of escalation and anonymity of perpetrators makes it intrinsically more difficult to tackle, while legislation, policy and compliance are lagging behind an ever-changing digital landscape.
Nevertheless, it is employers’ duty to address this form of work-related violence and put in place measures to protect their workers. The existing prevention approach for work-related violence can be adapted and updated to explicitly address work-related cyberviolence, while paying particular attention to sectoral and workplace specificities. A holistic, systemic and systematic approach is needed - with consistent and integrated policies tackling data security, telework, gender equality and OSH, and with updated risk assessment approaches explicitly addressing these issues. Finally, cooperation between Labour Inspectorates, police, social media organisations and others as appropriate is important for a joined-up approach.
