Biological risk in agro-zootechnical activities

Safety and health in agriculture

Legislation

The European Directive 2000/54/EC on “The protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work” (implemented in Italy by the Legislative Decree 9 April 2008, n. 81) sets rules concerning risk assessment and limitation if the exposure to biological agents cannot be avoided.

It has as its aim the protection of workers against risks to their health and safety, including the prevention of such risks, arising or likely to arise from exposure to biological agents at work. It shall apply to activities in which workers are or are potentially exposed to biological agents as a result of their work.

Hazard and risk are not synonymous. These two words are often thought to be interchangeable but there is a difference between them!

Risk - there is a likelihood that the potential for harm will be attained under the conditions of use and/or exposure.
Hazard - any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or someone.

Hazard may be present or not as it is closely related to a specific agent/equipment/substance/working task which, due to its intrinsic characteristics/properties, can cause harm to people. Exposure

The risk originates in the presence of a hazard, but it is also linked to the probability that the hazard may cause damage to people or things.

The two factors are related to exposure.

Definition of biological agent

According to the Directive 2000/54/EC (chapter 1, art. 2), "biological agents “shall mean micro-organisms, including those which have been genetically modified, cell cultures and human endoparasites, which may be able to provoke any infection, allergy or toxicity”.

Therefore, biological agents are:

bacteria
fungi (molds and yeasts)
viruses
prion disease agents
parasites

Substances or structures that originate from living or dead organisms fall within the broad definition of biological agents:

Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides present in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, whose inhalation can have toxic and inflammatory effects (fever, cardio-vascular and lung functions alterations with consequent respiratory complications such as wheezing and chest failure).
Mycotoxins: chemical substances released by certain species of molds; their ingestion and/or inhalation can have irritative, toxic and, for some mycotoxins, carcinogenic effects.
Allergens: substances naturally present in the environment or of anthropogenic origin (chemicals, food, drugs, metals, etc.). They are devoid of intrinsic toxicity but, in predisposed subjects, their exposure by inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, contact with skin or mucous membranes, can activate the immune system and trigger allergic reactions to the respiratory system (rhinitis, asthma), mucous membranes (conjunctivitis) and skin (dermatitis). The type and extent of the allergic reaction depend on the route of transmission, on the frequency and duration of exposure, on the allergen concentration and individual susceptibility. In the workplace allergens can be of animal (mites, hair and derivatives of animals, insects), vegetable (pollen, seeds, plants) and fungal (mold) origin.

Biological agents are classified into 4 risk groups, according to their level of risk of infection:

Group 1 (none or low collective and individual risk)	unlikely to cause human disease
Group 2 (moderate individual risk, limited collective risk)	can cause human disease and might be a hazard to workers; unlikely to spread to the community; there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available
Group 3 (high individual risk, low collective risk)	can cause severe human disease and present a serious hazard to workers; it may present a risk of spreading to the community, but there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available
Group 4 (high individual and collective risk)	causes severe human disease and is a serious hazard to workers; it may present a high risk of spreading to the community; there is usually no effective prophylaxis or treatment available

The "danger" of biological agents is established in relation to their characteristics:

Infectivity: ability to infect a host and to induce infection;
Pathogenicity: ability to induce disease following an infection;
Transmissibility: ability to be transmitted from infected person to a susceptible person;
Neutralizability: the availability of effective preventive or therapeutics measures.

The ANNEX III - Community classification - of the Directive 2000/54/EC, updated with the Directive (EU) 2019/1833, reports the list of biological agents so far classified and divided into bacteria, viruses, prion disease agents, parasites and fungi. The list also gives a separate indication in cases where the biological agents are likely to cause allergic (A) or toxic (T) reactions, where an effective vaccine is available and registered within the EU (V), or where it is advisable to keep a list of exposed workers for more than 10 years (D).

Furthermore, certain biological agents classified in group 3 which are indicated by two asterisks (**), may present a limited risk of infection for workers because they are not normally infectious by the airborne route.

Risk Assessment

In general, risk assessment is based on three fundamental elements:

Evaluation. Analysing all potentional sources of danger from which damage to workers' health may arise. Estimating the severity of harm resulting from exposure to such hazards. Identifying and quantifying exposed subjects. Measuring the degree of this exposure.
Management. The process aimed at the possible planning of interventions to reduce or improve the conditions of exposure to the risk itself. This is implemented in the preparation of the Risk Assessment Report.
Information/training. The worker must be informed of the health risks and adequately trained in the precautions to be taken to avoid exposure, the hygiene measures to be observed, and the function and correct use of workwear and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

Evaluation

This procedure has to be considered as the set of operations, both cognitive and operational that the employer is required to implement in order to achieve an exposure risk evaluation with the objective of eliminating and/or reducing the risk and thereby preventing occupational risks.

It is necessary to consider:

Characteristics of the biological agents (virulence, antimicrobial resistance, pathogenicity, infectivity, transmissibility);
Classification - risk groups (Annex III, DIRECTIVE (EU) 2019/1833);
Possible infectious diseases associated with a workplace;
Availability of vaccines, prophylaxis, treatment available;
Effects of infection (toxic and allergic reactions, severity of disease);
Work environment and exposure risk;
Number of workers potentially at risk;
Health and immune status of worker (immunocompromised, pregnancy, preexisting medical conditions, allergies, age, use of drugs).

In agriculture, biological risk assessment must also include the potential exposure of workers, who carry out activities in outdoor environments, to insects and animal bites

Management (prevention and protection measures)

Based on the risk assessment results, the employer must provide for the application of appropriate prevention and protection measures.

Prevention measures. Represent the set of measures aimed at preventing a harmful event, intervening on the causes by taking technical, structural, procedural, and behavioural measures so that the negative event is not repeated or its frequency is limited.
Protection measures. Constitute the set of measures necessary to prevent a harmful event or which have a defensive function against potential damage. These measures have the function of nullifying or, at least, limiting the extent of damage to property and persons, through the use of collective and/or individual devices.

Information and training of workers

The Directive 2000/54/EC defines the fundamental obligations regarding information and training of workers (Article 9), considered to be among the most important measures for the protection of health and safety of workers.

Appropriate measures shall be taken by the employer to ensure that workers receive sufficient and appropriate training, based on all available information, concerning potential risks to health, precautions to be taken to prevent exposure, hygiene requirements, use of protective equipment and clothing, measures to be taken in the case of incidents and to prevent them.

Workers shall be receive the training at the beginning of work involving contact with biological agents, and it shall be repeated periodically if necessary.

Biological risk in agriculture

Many biological agents may pose a risk to workers in the agricultural sector, especially in the livestock sector, and some must be considered more relevant, such as the pathogens responsible for brucellosis, tuberculosis, and tetanus.

Exposure to biological agents can occur whenever a person comes into contact in the workplace with:

Bioaerosols (airborne particulate material of biological origin);
Infected tissues and biological fluids (e.g. placentae, foetuses, viscera, intestinal lymph nodes, skin, semen, feathers);
Cutaneous lesions of animals;
Animal excrements and slurry;
Contaminated tools and work surfaces;
Contaminated water;
Arthropod vectors (tick bites, stings of hematophagous insects);
Materials of inorganic and organic nature (soil, clay, plant derivatives, organic powders, fodder, and feed);
Waste.

Exposure to biological agents can cause “harm” of various kinds: infectious, allergic, toxic, and carcinogenic. Symptomatology may manifest itself in different forms, depending on the nature of the pathogen, its “environmental load,” the time of exposure, as well as the physical condition and specific susceptibility of each worker.

The different modes of transmission of biological agents are explained below:

infection and disease are not synonymous …….

Invasion of a biological agent into the body not necessarily cause a disease, but this depends on:

Characteristics of biological agent (e.g. infectivity, pathogenicity, transmissibility, etc.);
Concentration of the biological agent;
Impairment of the immune system (e.g. use of steroids, chronic diseases, pregnancy, etc.);
Host susceptibility (e.g. age, sex, etc.).

The most widespread diseases in agriculture are infectious in nature and, in particular, those transmitted from animals to humans through direct or indirect contact are known as “zoonoses”. These diseases can also be contracted through the bite and/or sting of biological vectors (mosquitoes, phlebotomus, and ticks) that transmit the pathogen to humans. In this case, they are defined as “vector-borne” zoonoses, which, especially for workers who carry out their activities outdoors, can represent a non-negligible biological risk.

European Directive 2003/99/EC obliges EU Member States to carry out proper monitoring of zoonoses and zoonotic agents by collecting relevant and, when applicable, comparable data. The reporting of zoonoses is executed according to active systems in each member state and represents an excellent public health tool as it allows actions to be taken on possible epidemic outbreaks or single cases of spreading diseases. In Italy, European Directive 2003/99/EC was implemented by Legislative Decree 04/06/2006.

Illnesses caused by biological agents can be not only infectious but also toxic and allergic as a result of a worker’s exposure to microbial components and release products such as allergens, endotoxins, and mycotoxins.

In addition, workers in the agro-zootechnical sector are potentially exposed to other types of risk related to snake bites, hymenopteran stings (hornets, wasps, and bees), and contact with stinging insects (e.g. processionary moths).

Occupational risk from emerging diseases

Many occupational cases of emerging zoonoses are known in agriculture. In general, an infectious disease is defined as emerging when it has a higher prevalence than can be expected based on scientific and epidemiological knowledge. It may be caused either by unknown pathogens or by existing pathogens spreading to new geographical areas. An infectious disease, on the other hand, is defined as re-emergent when its prevalence increases again after more or less long periods of low endemicity.

What is an emerging infectious disease?

Infectious disease that has newly appeared in a population or has existed but is rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range, 75% of infectious emerging diseases are zoonoses, many of which are transmitted by vectors.

Over the last decade, environmental, economic, and social events (climate change, migration, changes in the environment and land use, intensive agriculture, increased travel, and animal trade) have favoured a progressive increase in emerging public health infections, both imported and indigenous, of vector-borne viral diseases of tropical origin (West Nile fever, Chikungunya, Dengue, Zika, and the Usutu virus). The emergence of public health cases also affects the occupational sector as agricultural workers who carry out their activities in the outdoor environment are potentially exposed to the stinging and/or biting of infected biological vectors and therefore have an increased risk of contracting these diseases.

The risk of emerging zoonotic diseases in agricultural is:

Bacterial diseases

Q Fever (Coxiella burnetii)
Infection MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus)

Viral diseases

Hepatitis E virus
Tick-borne encephalitis – TBE- (Tick-borne encephalitis virus central european subtype)
Type A influenza (strain Avian Influenza and Swine Influenza)
Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus)

Emerging zoonoses that pose a potential occupational risk to date are:

Viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu)
Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Prevention and protection measures

In agriculture, in the context of bio-risk prevention, it is important to promote the adoption of standardised and shared procedures together with interventions on the environment (e.g. using mechanised procedures in work processes) and the use of the devices and equipment, which are required in order to prevent possible contagion.

PREVENTION	ENVIRONMENTAL	PROCEDURAL	INDIVIDUAL
LEVEL I Reduction elimination of risk exposure	Mechanisation of work processes; Changing rooms with separate clean/dirty lockers; Washbasins, eyewashers, and boot washers at the entrance to the changing rooms.	Standardised procedures for carrying out work involving direct contact with possible reservoirs of infection (soil, marshes) and for reporting possible zoonoses.	Basic hygiene measures: Separating work clothes from personal clothes, cleaning and disinfecting them properly; Personal hygiene; Ban on consuming food, drinks, and smoking in the workplace.
LEVEL II Residual risk protection	Periodic disinfection and sanitisation of rooms, surfaces, materials, equipment.	Verification of non-transmission to operators.	Personal protective equipment; Health surveillance.
LEVEL III Control of health effects that have already occurred.	Disinfection and sanitisation of rooms, surfaces, and materials in contact with the micro-organism.	Identification of tasks with the greatest biological risk.	Therapy

The adoption of standard procedures in the organisation of work of fundamental importance are:

Check the PPE before starting the work;
Wearing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for protection against potentially infectious materials;
Reusable PPE should be properly cleaned and stored after every use.

Vector - borne zoonoses prevention

For the prevention of “vector-borne” zoonoses, additional behavioural prophylaxis and environmental control measures of biological vectors must be adopted by the employer and employee (table 1).

Table 1. Indications for vector control (s. DI Renzi et al. 2019)
Standards for the control of biological vectors
Behavioural Standards	Mosquitoes	Ticks	Phlebotomi
Using light-coloured clothes to identify the vector
Wearing clothes that do not leave parts of the body uncovered (e.g. long-sleeved shirts, long trousers, closed shoes, socks, and headwear)
Walking in the middle of paths; not walking in areas where the grass is higher and not sitting directly on the grass
Frequent emptying of containers holding stagnant water
Environmental control standards	Mosquitoes	Ticks	Phlebotomi
Installation of mechanical barriers (nets or mosquito nets on windows) and/or air conditioning systems
Use of insect repellents
Intensification of environmental hygiene activities to eliminate waste as breeding sites for mosquitoes
Use of pets repellents

In the context of biohazard protection, the purpose of personal protective equipment is to protect the worker from the possibility of infection following exposure to biological agents.

Personal protective equipment

The personal protective equipment (PPE) is equipment designed and manufactured to be worn or held by a person for protection against one or more risks to that person's health or safety (Regulation (EU) 2016/425). PPE shall meet the essential health and safety requirements set out in Annex II, which apply to it (Regulation (EU) 2016/425 art. 5).

PPE must be designed and manufactured so that, in the foreseeable conditions of use for which it is intended, the user can perform the risk-related activity normally whilst enjoying appropriate protection of the highest level possible. In addition, PPE must be designed and manufactured so as not to create risks or other nuisance factors under foreseeable conditions of use.

Employers' obligations (Directive 2000/54/EC)

Article 8 - Hygiene and individual protection

1. Employers shall be obliged, in the case of all activities for which there is a risk to the health or safety of workers due to work with biological agents, to take appropriate measures to ensure that:

workers do not eat or drink in working areas where there is a risk of contamination by biological agents;
workers are provided with appropriate protective clothing or other appropriate special clothing;
workers are provided with appropriate and adequate washing and toilet facilities, which may include eye washes and/or skin antiseptics;
any necessary protective equipment is:

properly stored in a well-defined place,
checked and cleaned if possible before, and in any case after, each use,
is repaired, where defective, or is replaced before further use;

procedures are specified for taking, handling and processing samples of human or animal origin.

2. Working clothes and protective equipment, including protective clothing referred to in paragraph 1, which may be contaminated by biological agents, must be removed on leaving the working area and, before taking the measures referred to in the second subparagraph, kept separately from other clothing.

The employer must ensure that such clothing and protective equipment is decontaminated and cleaned or, if necessary, destroyed.

3. Workers may not be charged for the cost of the measures referred to in paragraphs 1 and 2.

Article 9 - Information and training of workers

1. Appropriate measures shall be taken by the employer to ensure that workers and/or any workers' representatives in the undertaking or establishment receive sufficient and appropriate training, on the basis of all available information, in particular in the form of information and instructions, concerning:

(a) potential risks to health;

(b) precautions to be taken to prevent exposure;

(d) wearing and use of protective equipment and clothing;

(e) steps to be taken by workers in the case of incidents and to prevent incidents.

2. The training shall be:

(a) given at the beginning of work involving contact with biological agents,

(b) adapted to take account of new or changed risks, and

Workers' obligations

Workers are required to comply with certain rules of conduct such as:

taking care of and not making any modifications to PPE;
following company procedures for their return/disposal after use;
immediately notifying the employer or the manager or supervisor of any defects or faults detected in PPE.

Biohazard PPE

Biohazard PPE must comply with the following requirements of European Regulation (EU) 2016/425:

be safe and effective only if they possess certain characteristics defined by specific technical standards;
have the EC declaration of conformity with health and safety requirements;
be provided with information notes on their use and maintenance.

They can be:

Disposable: must be replaced according to directions for use and/or after high-risk manoeuvres or operations and disposed of according to specific procedures.
Reusable: they must be checked, cleaned, and disinfected after each use and, if necessary, repaired and/or replaced if damaged or worn.

Hands

The use of gloves is advisable in the context of activities involving contact with potentially contaminated material (soil, sewage, plants, animals and/or their products, work surfaces/equipment/instruments).

They must be removed before touching objects, which are personal, or of everyday use (handles, telephones, etc.). If they are reusable, they must be cleaned and disinfected after use (Annex 1). Wash hands both before and after removing gloves.

They can be:

Disposable: latex or nitrile gloves;
Reusable: working gloves made of rubber or stronger cut-resistant materials to prevent injuries that can carry infectious agents. Compliant with technical standard EN 388:2016+A1:2018 (Protective gloves against mechanical risks).

Gloves for protection against microorganisms must comply with the technical standards:

EN 374-1:2016/A1:2018 Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and microorganisms - Part 1: Terminology and performance requirements for chemical risks.
EN 374-2:2019 Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and microorganisms - Part 2: Determination of resistance to penetration.
EN 374-5:2016 Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and microorganisms - Part 5: Terminology and performance requirements for microorganisms risks.

Respiratory

Respiratory protection must be provided in the context of activities that lead to the dispersion of potentially contaminated bioaerosols into the environment (handling of meal and feed, handling of fodder and feed, contact with animals and their biological fluids, irrigation, etc.).

For protection against biological agents, respiratory tract PPE must comply with the technical standard EN 149:2009+A1:2009 (Respiratory protective devices - Filtering half masks to protect against dust - Requirements, testing, and marking).

Eyes and face

Protection of the face and mucous membranes (protective goggles, visors, and face shields) must be provided in the context of activities that may cause splashes of potentially contaminated material (e.g. when handling animals and their excrement).

Such PPE must comply with the technical standard EN 16321-1:2022 (Eye and face protection for occupational use - Part 1: General requirements)

Body

Body protection must be provided in the context of activities such as handling, care, and cleaning of animals, fieldwork, and fertilisation.

Impermeable coats and non-woven overalls with full body protection are disposable PPE.

Specific clothing for protection against infectious agents must comply with technical standards:

EN 14126:2004 (Protective clothing - Performance requirements and test methods for protective clothing against infectious agents);
EN ISO 13688:2013/A1:2021 (Protective clothing - General requirements - Amendment 1).

When cleaning stables and coming into contact with slurry and excrement, overalls with type 5 and 6 protection must be used.

Commonly used cotton coats are not PPE, but protective clothing that does not protect against specific risks.

Rubber boots

Waterproof, non-slip rubber boots. Safety footwear, with a reinforced toe, when working in the near animal paws, to avoid possible trampling injuries.

Health surveillance

Italian legislation on the protection of health and safety in the workplace (Italian Legislative Decree 81/2008) implements Directive 2000/54/EC on the prevention of biological risks in the workplace, according to which EU member states must adopt scientifically, agreed provisions to ensure the safety and health surveillance of workers following exposure to biological agents.

Annexes I, III, V, and VI of Directive 2000/54/EC were subsequently amended by Directive (EU) 2019/1833, as far as strictly technical measures are concerned and by European Directive (EU) 2020/739, which added SARS-CoV-2 to the list of biological agents that can cause infectious diseases in humans.

At a conference in June 2022, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) proposed the “Technical guidelines on biological hazards” a document with the objective of providing, in line with international labour standards, specific advice to governments, employers, workers, and their representatives on the prevention and control of occupational accidents, illnesses, and deaths related to exposure to biological hazards in the workplace. In particular, there is guidance on the health surveillance of workers, the monitoring of occupational accidents and diseases, and the response to biological emergencies.

The control of biological risks in the workplace should in fact be organised according to the general principles described in the ILO conventions, recommendations, and protocols on OSH (occupational safety and health) to protect all workers, including those in the agro-zootechnical sector. In this context, Member States are advised to adopt, in accordance with national legislation and practice, provisions to ensure the appropriate health surveillance of all workers whose safety or health is at risk, based on the results of the occupational risk assessment.

Agricultural activities and potential biological risks

Open field

Agricultural activities carried in open field include multiple tasks and duties aimed at ensuring the agricultural production of cereals, vegetables, and fruit for human and animal consumption or of plant products for non-food uses (production of raw materials for industrial uses).

The tasks performed in the field by the agricultural worker are generally as follows:

Soil preparation (weed removal, spading, tilling);
Sowing or planting of seedlings;
Irrigation and pruning;
Manuring, fertilisation, and defence;
Weeding;
Harvesting;
Post-harvesting (transport, storage, hulling, and sorting).

Therefore, biohazards may arise from:

Contact with contaminated soil, wetlands/ponds, or forage crops;
Contact with manure and slurry used in fertilisation;
Contact with wild animals and their biological fluids;
Scratches/bites of wild animals;
Insect bites;
Contact with contaminated work surfaces and/or equipment;
Cuts and abrasions due to the use of contaminated sharp instruments/objects;
Inhalation of contaminated bioaerosol;
Accidental ingestion of contaminated water.

It should be noted that workers are also potentially exposed to biological risk during maintenance activities on structures (stables, silos) and agricultural equipment (tractors, wagons).

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Distribute manure after composting or slurry after anaerobic digestion to reduce the bacterial load;
Wash and disinfect yourself if you have come into contact with organic material (splashes, etc.);
Check for wounds/abrasions on the skin and cover them up;
Draw irrigation water from safe sources;
Prevent the flow of animal excrement into cultivated land;
Periodically clean and disinfect equipment and work surfaces;
Wash hands properly after work activities;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Use appropriate PPE;
Store work clothes in special cabinets, separate from personal clothing;
Not wash clothes and boots in the home;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE.

The diseases that could be contracted in the open field, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Anaplasmosis or Ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia phagocytophilum)
Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni)
Extrinsic allergic alveolitis or hypersensitivity pneumonitis (Actinomyces thermophilus) Enterobacteriaceae infection (Salmonella spp., Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp.) Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans)
Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) Mediterranean Spotted Fever (Rickettsia conorii) Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Emerging bacterial diseases

Q Fever (Coxiella burnetii)

Viral diseases

Rabies (Rabies lyssavirus)

Emerging viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Tick-borne encephalitis – TBE- (Tick-borne encephalitis virus central european subtype) Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus)
Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu) Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Fungal diseases

Sporotrichosis or “rose gardener's disease” (Sporothrix schenckii)

Allergic and inflammatory diseases

Workers in open field are also potentially exposed to allergens derived from animal (mites, animal hair and derivatives, insects), plant (pollen, seeds, plants), and fungal (moulds) sources.

In particular, exposure to grain dust and flour, potentially contaminated with mites (Lepidoglyphus destructor Glycyphagus domesticus), mouldy hay and straw (contaminated with allergenic moulds such as Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., etc.), seeds (soya, buckwheat, castor beans, green coffee), some vegetables (asparagus, sunflower, lettuce, etc.), plants/flowers (tulips, daffodils, gerberas, etc.) and insects (flies, moths, etc.) can have allergic effects in predisposed subjects (atopic) and cause dermatitis (urticaria), bronchial asthma, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis.

Furthermore, in the context of activities involving the handling of organic material potentially contaminated by Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. cultivation and harvesting, treatment/disposal of plant waste, fodder production), the presence, even at high concentrations, of bacterial endotoxins responsible for inflammatory diseases as a result of inhalation is possible.

Other types of risk

Viper bites.
Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.

Greenhouse farming

Greenhouse farming Greenhouses are environments which, as a result of their peculiar microclimatic conditions (high levels of temperature and relative humidity, low capacity for air exchange with the outside), are likely to favour the accumulation of organic dust and the consequent growth of biological agents on environmental matrices (air, water, and surfaces).

In such environments, biological hazards may arise from:

Contact with contaminated soil, wet soil, and forage crops;
Inhalation of bioaerosols generated by handling organic material and/or irrigation systems potentially contaminated with aquatic pathogens;
Accidental ingestion of contaminated water;
Contact with contaminated work surfaces and tools;
Cuts and abrasions due to the use of sharp and/or pointed tools/objects;
Insect bites.

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Provide thermally and weather-insulated rooms with adequate openings for rapid air exchange;
Provide appropriate ventilation and protection against moisture;
Distribute manure after composting or slurry after anaerobic digestion to reduce the bacterial load;
Wash and disinfect yourself if contact has been made with organic material (splashes, etc.);
Draw irrigation water from safe sources or adopting appropriate purification systems;
Wash hands properly after work activities;
Check for wounds/abrasions on the skin and covering them;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Sanitize workplaces and equipment;
Use appropriate PPE;
Store work clothes in special cabinets, separate from personal clothing;
Not wash clothes and boots in the home;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE.

The diseases that can be contracted in greenhouse cultivation, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Enterobacteriaceae infection (Salmonella spp., Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp.) Legionellosis (Legionella pneumophila)
Mediterranean Spotted Fever (Rickettsia conorii) Pseudomonas infection (Pseudomonas aeuruginosa) Tetanus (Clostridium tetani)

Emerging bacterial diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus) Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu)
Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Fungal diseases

Aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus)
Sporotrichosis or “rose gardener's disease” (Sporothrix schenckii)

Allergic and inflammatory diseases

Workers engaged in greenhouse activities are also potentially exposed to allergens derived from animal (plant parasites), plant (pollen, seeds, etc.), and fungal (Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Alternaria spp.) sources. In particular, filamentous fungi can colonise greenhouses as particularly humid and organic-rich environments, easily proliferating on plant materials and food.

Furthermore, in the context of activities involving the handling of organic material potentially contaminated by Gram-negative bacteria, the presence, even at high concentrations, of bacterial endotoxins responsible for inflammatory diseases as a result of inhalation is possible, especially during the harvesting and eradication of senescent plants and waste disposal activities.

Other types of risk

Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.

Fungiculture

Mushroom cultivation for food use is a very old practice. It has now undergone considerable development and can be distinguished into extensive fungiculture, favoured and increased in the natural environment, and intensive fungiculture in premises with specific conditions of humidity, temperature, ventilation, light, and availability of appropriate fertilisers.

In such environments, biological hazards may arise from:

Contact with contaminated soil or plant material;
Insect stings;
Cuts and abrasions due to the use of contaminated sharp instruments/objects;
Contact with contaminated work surfaces/equipment;
Inhalation of bioaerosols generated by handling organic material and/or irrigation systems potentially contaminated with aquatic pathogens.

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Provide thermally and weather-insulated rooms with adequate openings for rapid air exchange;
Provide appropriate ventilation and protection against moisture;
Provide maintainance, cleaning, and sanitising ventilation systems at least once a year to reduce the presence of pathogens (dust mites, bacteria, mould, animal allergens, viruses, and fungi);
Provide clean and easily sanitised floors and walls;
Check for wounds/abrasions on the skin and cover them up;
Wash hands properly after work activities;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Sanitize workplaces and equipment;
Use appropriate PPE;
Store work clothes in special cabinets, separate from personal clothing;
Not wash clothes and boots in the home;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE.

The diseases that can be contracted in fungiculture, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Pseudomonas infection (Pseudomonas aeuruginosa) Legionellosis (Legionella pneumophila)
Tetanus (Clostridium tetani)

Emerging viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus) Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu)
Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Fungal diseases

Aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus)
Sporotrichosis or “rose gardener's disease” (Sporothrix schenckii)

Allergic diseases

Individuals working in mushroom cultivation are also potentially exposed to allergens derived from plant (pollen, seeds, etc.), animal (mites, insects), and fungal (Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Alternaria spp., Cladosporium spp.) sources. In particular, fungi can colonise these particularly humid and organic-rich environments, easily developing on plant materials.

Other types of risk

Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.

Silviculture

silviculture Forest work, which is included in agriculture, comprises multiple activities directed at controlling the growth, composition, structure, and quality of a forest, with the objective of producing timber and preserving the quality and quantity of the forest stock over time. These are processes related to natural cycles, which are influenced by climate change and forest conditions.

In this area of work, biological risks may arise from:

Contact with contaminated soil and plant material;
Stings or bites from mosquitoes, ticks, etc.;
Contact with stinging insects (processionary moths);
Cuts and abrasions due to the use of contaminated sharp instruments/objects;
Contact with wild animals and their biological fluids;
Snake bites (vipers);
Scratches/bites of wild animals.

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Avoid contact with wild animals;
Check for wounds/abrasions on the skin;
Wash hands properly after work activities;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Sanitize equipment;
Use appropriate PPE;
Store work clothes in special cabinets, separate from personal clothing;
Not wash clothes and boots in the home.

The diseases that can be contracted in silviculture, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
Anaplasmosis or Ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia phagocytophilum)
Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans)
Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) Mediterranean Spotted Fever (Rickettsia conorii) Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Emerging bacterial diseases

Q Fever (Coxiella burnetii)

Viral diseases

Rabies (Rabies lyssavirus)

Emerging viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Tick-borne encephalitis – TBE- (Tick-borne encephalitis virus central european subtype) Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus)
Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu) Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Fungal diseases

Histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum)
Sporotrichosis or “rose gardener's disease” (Sporothrix schenckii)

Allergic diseases

The allergens present in silviculture to which the worker is potentially exposed can be of animal origin (mites, insects, droppings, feathers, hair), or plant origin (pollen, seeds, latex, sap, resins, plants, wood dust).

Other types of risk

Viper bites.
Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.
Urticating hair insects (processionary moths, and brown-tail moths or euprottides).

Animal husbandry

animal husbandry In the livestock sector, the biological risk for operators is mainly caused by zoonoses, infectious diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans during the various activities that require direct contact with livestock.

The major sources of biological hazards are, therefore, animals and their excrement, biological fluids and materials, organic dust, contaminated aerosols, hay and feed, contaminated surfaces, clothing, and equipment.

The most critical activities/work steps are:

Preparation and distribution of feed or hay;
Milking and shearing;
Inspection, assistance, and treatment on animals;
Loading, unloading, and handling of livestock (skin contact with the animal, splashes of urine, and excrement);
Harvesting of animal-derived products (eggs, milk, wool, etc.);
Cleaning and disinfection of premises and bedding (urine and excrement splashes, and bioaerosols);
Sewage management (urine, excrement, and bioaerosols).

Since livestock activities are also carried out in outdoor environments, workers are potentially exposed to mosquito and tick bites (vector-borne zoonoses) and rodent bites.

The general prevention measures to be implemented in each type of farm are:

Separate workplaces from canteens and administrative offices;
Comply with construction standards of breeding facilities:
- Insulation;
- Openable windows for room ventilation;
- Shelters made of materials that can be washed and disinfected;
- Structured feeders and troughs to reduce food contamination;
- Ventilation system for air filtration;
- Adequate artificial lighting.

Avoid the use of contaminated water for irrigating fodder crops;
Prevent rodents and insects (e.g. flies, mealworms) from entering the breeding and housing environments;
Check the health of the animals before introducing them into the herd;
Remove infested or diseased animals;
Immediately report the occurrence of zoonoses to the official veterinarian;
Avoid large numbers of animals on the farm;
Carry out thorough cleaning and disinfection of shelters and equipment at the end of each breeding cycle (sanitary vacuum 10-15 days);
Sanitize equipment, as per procedures;
Carry out periodic maintenance of the air handling equipment and cleaning the intake and exhaust grilles;
Implement daily, weekly, periodic, extraordinary cleaning, disinfection, and disinfestation protocols;
Adopt correct procedures for the collection and disposal of waste materials (droppings);
Use automatic machinery/equipment where possible;
Use cleaning techniques that do not produce aerosols of dirty water or other materials;
Maintain adequate temperature and relative humidity levels in enclosed workplaces and adequate ventilation of rooms.

The general preventive measures for the worker are:

Check for and covering any wounds;
Carry out proper hand washing after work activities;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Clean and disinfect equipment and tools;
Carry out adequate cleaning of footwear to avoid the spread of bacteria between different stalls;
Use appropriate PPE;
Store work clothes in special cabinets, separate from personal clothing;
Not wash clothes and boots at home;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE.

The diseases that can be contracted on farms and the biological agents that cause them are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
Brucellosis (Brucella melitensis; Brucella abortus; Brucella suis; Brucella canis) Campylobatteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni)
Enterobacteriaceae infection (Salmonella spp., Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp.) Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae disease (Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae)
Escherichia coli infection (strain enterohaemorrhagic O157:H7, O103, O26, O111 e O145) Extrinsic allergic alveolitis or hypersensitivity pneumonitis (Actinomyces thermophilus) Mediterranean Spotted Fever (Rickettsia conorii)
Legionellosis (Legionella pneumophila) Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans) Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) Pasteurellosis (Pasteurella multocida)
Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci) Streptococcus infection (Streptococcus suis) Tetanus (Clostridium tetani)
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis; Mycobacterium avium; Mycobacterium caprae) Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Emerging bacterial diseases

Infection MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) Q Fever (Coxiella burnetii)

Viral diseases

Rabies (Rabies lyssavirus)

Emerging viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Tick-borne encephalitis – TBE- (Tick-borne encephalitis virus central european subtype) Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus)
Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu) Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile) Hepatitis E virus (HEV)
Avian and swine influenza virus (type A influenza virus)

Fungal diseases

Aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus) Cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus neoformans) Histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum)
Tinea or Dermatophytosis (Tricophyton spp., Microsporum spp.)

Parasites diseases

Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum) Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)

Mites diseases

Pseudoscabies (Sarcoptes scabiei)

Allergic and inflammatory diseases

Livestock workers are also potentially exposed to allergens of animal (poultry mites, animal dander, saliva, and urine) and fungal (moulds) origin. In particular, fungi can colonise particularly humid and organic-rich work environments such as stables and warehouses.

In addition, the handling of organic material of animal origin by Gram-negative bacteria may expose the worker to bacterial endotoxins by inhalation, especially during slaughtering activities and the handling of feed.

Other types of risks

Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the controlled production, in intensive, extensive, or semi-extensive farming, in fresh, brackish, or salt water, of fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and algae to provide fish products for human consumption. In such work contexts, the sources of biological hazards are mainly represented by infected live animals on the farm, the meal and feed used to feed them, and contaminated work surfaces and equipment.

The most critical activities/work steps are:

Preparation and distribution of feed and fishmeal;
Use of oxygenators (aerosol production);
Cleaning and disinfection of grids and breeding tanks;
Handling of aquatic organisms (wounds, cuts, and abrasions);
Packing and packaging;
Removal of dead animals.

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Avoid the overcrowding of breeding tanks;
Constant and careful cleaning of the tanks;
Not handle fish without gloves;
No direct contact with water;
Cleaning of equipment and workplaces;
Wash hands and arms with warm water and soap after work;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Check for and covering any wounds;
Use appropriate PPE;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE.

The diseases that can be contracted in aquaculture, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae disease (Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae) Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans)
Necrotizing fasciitis (Vibrio vulnificus)
Nontuberculous mycobacterial disease (Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium chelonae) Nocardiosi (Nocardia asteroids)
Pseudomonas infection (Pseudomonas aeuruginosa)
Streptococcus infection (Streptococcus iniae) Tetanus (Clostridium tetani)
Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Fungal disease

Aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus)

Parasites disease

Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum)

Allergic diseases

Workers may develop allergies by handling fish meal or fish infected by larvae of Anisakis.

Other types of risk

Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.

Beekeeping

Beekeeping is the zootechnical management of bees by specialised operators to create the optimal conditions for honey production, royal jelly, beeswax, propolis, and pollen.

In this area of work, biological risks may arise from:

Cuts and abrasions due to the use of contaminated sharp instruments/objects;
Insect stings;
Tick bites.

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Verify individual sensitivity to bee stings (if necessary, the targeted administration of cortisone or adrenaline therapies);
Sanitize equipment;
Wash hands properly after work activities;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE;
Use appropriate PPE.

The diseases that can be contracted in beekeeping, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi)
Tetanus (Clostridium tetani)
Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Emerging viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Tick-borne encephalitis – TBE- (Tick-borne encephalitis virus central european subtype)
Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus) Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu)
Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Allergic diseases

In beekeeping, workers are predominantly exposed to allergens of plant origin (pollen).

Other types of risk

Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.

Heliciculture and vermiculture

Heliciculture (snail farming) used to play a marginal role in the agro-zootechnical framework, whereas today it represents an important production sector in the food (snails, snail caviar and liqueur), cosmetic (snail slime) and medical (syrups) industries.

Vermiculture includes:

Vermicomposting is an environmentally sustainable alternative technique of transforming organic residues into humus using earthworms, enabling the recycling of organic waste for the production of natural fertilisers. This activity is subject to veterinary supervision;
Production of fishing lures.

In this area of work, biological risks may arise from:

Direct and/or indirect contact with contaminated organic substances used as substrates;
Direct and/or indirect contact with manure and other animal excrements that have not matured properly in the adequate sites;
Cuts and abrasions due to the use of contaminated sharp instruments/objects.

The general prevention measures to be implemented are:

Maintain the farm and adjacent areas in good hygienic conditions;
Sanitizing of equipment;
Wash hands properly after work activities;
Ban eating, drinking, and smoking during work activities;
Systematically check, clean, and disinfect PPE;
Use appropriate PPE.

The diseases that can be contracted in heliciculture and vermiculture, and the biological agents that cause them, are as follows:

Bacterial diseases

Enterobacteriaceae infection (Salmonella spp., Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp.) Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans)
Tetanus (Clostridium tetani) Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Emerging viral diseases

Chikungunya Fever (Virus Chikungunya) Dengue Fever (Virus Dengue)
Toscana virus infection (Sandly Fever Naples phlebovirus -Toscana virus) Usutu Encephalitis (Virus Usutu)
Zika disease (Virus Zika)
West Nile Fever (Virus West Nile)

Allergic diseases

Allergens present in heliciculture and vermiculture can be of animal (mites, insects), plant (pollen), or fungal (Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Alternaria spp., Cladosporium spp.) origin.

Other types of risk

Hornet, wasp, and bee stings.