Introduction
The agricultural sector encompasses a large variety of activities that has seen a number of major changes in recent years. These changes, along with a distinctive rural life and work-related problems may considerably influence stress levels in farming communities. This article describes some of the psychosocial issues that farmers and agricultural workers face in their work, and how these issues may affect their physical and mental health. Finally, strategies and measures for tackling psychosocial issues in this sector are presented.
Agricultural production and its change
What is farming/agriculture?
Agriculture, also called farming, includes “activities carried out in agricultural undertakings including crop production, forestry activities, animal husbandry and insect raising, the primary processing of agricultural and animal products by or on behalf of the operator of the undertaking as well as the use and maintenance of machinery, equipment, appliances, tools, and agricultural installations, including any process, storage, operation or transportation in an agricultural undertaking, which are directly related to agricultural production”[1].
Statistics related to farming/agriculture
In 2020, there were 9.1 million farms in the EU[2] with an estimated 8.7 million people working in agriculture, accounting for 4.2% of European workers[3]. Agriculture is a particularly large employer in Romania, accounting for just over one in five people employed in the country in 2020 (20.9%), as well as in Bulgaria (16.6% of total employment), Greece (9.7%) and Poland (9.0%)[3].
In recent decades, the number of farms and the number of people employed in agriculture have decreased, with the share of agricultural employment falling from 6.4% of total EU employment in 2005 to 4.2% in 2020[2].
The agricultural sector in the EU is dominated by family farms. Family farms are farms on which 50% or more of the regular agricultural labour force is provided by family members and about 94.8% of farms were classed as such in 2020[2].
Work-related psychosocial issues in agriculture
Working in the agriculture sector is known to be a very physically and mentally demanding job with high rates of occupational accidents[4].
The detrimental impact that work can have on workers´ health is partly due to the different psychosocial hazards faced by farmers and workers in this sector, such as long working hours, isolation, financial uncertainty, planning difficulties, administrative demands, and the interaction between stress and exposure to multiple physical risks. The EU-OSHA report on Mental health in agriculture[4] found that mental health problems in the sector are widespread with high levels of stress, fatigue, burnout, anxiety and suicide.
Working hours
Work in the agriculture sector is characterised by working long hours, as livestock require constant care and crops need to be planted and harvested within specific time frames[5] [6]. Data from the European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS, 2021)[7] showed that 47% of workers in the agriculture sector worked more than 48 hours per week. This was the highest percentage observed in all sectors and it is more than double the average (19 %) of the number of workers working more than 48 hours per week in the EU[7]. In addition, there is a high prevalence of shift work and the need for constant availability, including nights, weekends and holidays[4]. Harvests are often dependent on the weather, which often results in longer working hours when the weather is good or when there is a threat of bad weather[8].
These long and unpredictable hours may have a physical and mental toll on workers[9], which may be exacerbated by insufficient recuperation/recovery time following work[10]. Ultimately, both long hours and insufficient recovery time can have detrimental effects on worker’s physical and mental wellbeing[11].
Isolation
Farming is a job that is often solitary, given the remote location of farms and the regular lone working[12], as well as recent advances in digitalisation and mechanisation[4].
Although there are some studies that show farmers do not feel socially isolated[13] [6], other studies have shown that this is a key issue of concern[9] [14]. In addition, available evidence demonstrates an association between poor social support and increased stress symptoms[15], depression[13] and suicide[16] rates amongst farmers. All respondents who took part in the stakeholder interviews conducted as part of the EU-OSHA Mental Health in Agriculture project[4] felt that isolation and loneliness have a significant impact on farmers’ well-being. Structural issues such as lack of investment and the relative isolation of rural areas, combined with the stoicism of farmers, were seen as exacerbating feelings of isolation and loneliness[4].
In addition to social isolation, there are a number of agriculture tasks (e.g. land cultivation, sowing, plant protection operations, harvesting, fence mending) that are characterised by lone working[17]. Such work tasks can place the worker in a vulnerable position should an accident or injury occur, as the worker might not be in a position to handle the situation independently and colleagues might not be aware of or available should an incident occur[17]. Not only can the actual incident be detrimental to the health of an agriculture worker, but the concern with having to deal with a potentially difficult situation on their own (e.g. machine blockages and repairs, bull handling) can also be distressing and a potential source of stress to an agriculture worker[17].
Financial uncertainty
Agriculture outputs, be it crop or animal products, are vulnerable to market risks and competition[18] which can be a significant source of stress for farmers[19]. In fact, some research studies[9] [16] [20] have found that the main contributing factor for depression and suicide in farmers was financial difficulty. Financial instability is highly influenced by commercial actors and agricultural market dynamics at both the European and global levels[4]. Farms face competition from imported and cheaper produce from countries with cheaper labour and the dominance of supermarkets, which frequently push prices for agricultural products to unsustainably low levels[18]. This creates a precarious economic balance for farms, where farms must navigate high investment costs for materials and productivity, implement efficient cost management strategies, and rely on EU subsidies to remain viable[4]. Additionally, the sector is particularly vulnerable to economic fluctuations, such as rising energy prices, as well as environmental challenges, including adverse weather conditions and natural resource limitations[21].
Numerous studies underscore the significance of financial threats for farmers’ mental wellbeing[4] [19] [22]. In order to generate additional income, it is not uncommon for farmers to work on other farms or in non-farming roles[5] [19].
External factors
The reality of the agriculture sector is that it is vulnerable to a number of external factors that workers have little control over. These include the seasonal nature of farming, exacerbated by climate change, as well as stock problems and regulatory pressures. Many farmers find it challenging to plan ahead in agriculture, as weather conditions and other circumstances are difficult to control and predict. This can cause farmers a great deal of stress[23].
Weather conditions
Weather conditions can differ considerably, with research demonstrating weather to be a significant concern for farmers and farm managers[6] [21] [22], with a potential detrimental impact on the mental health of farmers[24]. Destructive weather conditions have the ability to affect individual farms, such as when a field gets destroyed by hail or frost[25]. Poor weather conditions can also affect a group of farms or community when their crops are destroyed by excessive rainfall, or entire regions of crops and livestock can be affected by weather conditions that include droughts or floods[25]. Farms that are involved in crop plantation are particularly vulnerable, as they may sustain heavy losses or may need additional planning and effort to save their crops[25]. The inability to influence the season/weather, disrupted plans and crop losses, extra financial and labour input, present possible challenges that can contribute towards work-related stress symptoms[18] [25].
Climate change
The agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable to the risks associated with climate change[4] [26] [27]. Extreme and unpredictable weather conditions have a significant impact on agricultural productivity and are a major source of stress for farmers. Rising global temperatures also threaten the physical and mental well-being of farmers and farm workers, contributing to heat stress that affects not only people but also crops and livestock.
Drought and water scarcity caused by climate change have serious consequences for agricultural productivity and physical health[4]. Water shortages directly reduce crop yields and harm livestock, leading to financial strain and increased input costs. To safeguard crop production, animal health and income stability, farmers must adapt their practices, often by diversifying farming methods. As climate change intensifies, the pressure to change farming techniques and production strategies may increase stress levels, given the direct link between productivity and income. Investments in climate adaptation will be essential, alongside financing to manage rising energy and water costs[4].
Stock problems
Stock crises generally apply to livestock farming. The stock crises may occur at a farm, community and/or regional level25. For example, a disease outbreak within one flock can be a stock crisis at the farm level. Diseases related to an environmental pollution source can affect the stock and health of a group of farms, while a contagious disease outbreak (e.g. bovine spongiform encephalopathy, foot-and-mouth disease, tuberculosis) has the potential to devastate an entire farming region. In addition, climate change may influence the expansion of pest and disease ranges, which will have a negative impact on agriculture[27]. The economic effects of such situations are shared by entire rural communities, but farmers are particularly affected[18] [25]. Overcoming a stock crisis requires significant work on the farmers’ part. Livestock treatment, quarantine, deciding which animals to cull, or the disposal of the dead livestock takes considerable time and money, and, in turn, can be extremely stressful[18]. For crop farmers, along with the challenge of dealing with crop disease and pests, the possibility of damaged crops is another source of stress as well[18] [28].
Administrative duties and understanding policy developments
Administrative burden is a significant cause of stress for farmers[23]. Demands for environmental protection, animal welfare, technological progress and market regulation have led to a series of strict guidelines that all farmers must adhere to in their production and business practices[4]. Understanding and implementing these policies is a major source of stress for farmers. These regulations cover a wide range of areas, including food safety, animal health, biotechnology, genetically modified organisms, and environmental standards related to resource use and pollution control[4]. Compliance is often necessary to qualify for subsidies but also comes with significant administrative burdens. Farmers must manage extensive paperwork, including subsidy applications, stock and crop accounting, sales documentation, filling in tax documentation, and complying with occupational safety and health (OSH) requirements or other inspections. While larger farms may be able to outsource administrative roles, farmers from smaller farms often have to integrate these additional demands into their existing workload[9]. Changes in legislation can also be a source of concern for farmers as they may be required to change their current practices[13] [9] or even restructure their farm businesses. Both regulatory and financial pressures have driven the expansion of farms and the intensification of production to meet growing demand[4].
In a series of interviews with Danish farmers, Leskinen[29] observed that farmers had negative perceptions on new EU regulations, and they felt that insufficient support was provided to cope with additional administrative duties due to these regulations. A survey by Booth and Lloyd of farmers from the South West of England found that 43% of respondents reported the amount of paper work as ‘a little’ stressful, and 54% reported this work demand to be very stressful (‘a lot’)[13] . The same survey also identified new legislation and paperwork to be the two biggest concerns for farmers. A similar observation was made in a different study by Simkin and colleagues, where farmers found the implementation of new legislation stressful[9]. However, Simkin and colleagues[9] also found that some farmers benefited from this change in legislation and, therefore, appreciated the implementation of these new policies. This perhaps suggest that whether or not a farmer perceives a benefit from the policy changes, may be associated with whether it is viewed as potential source of stress or not.
Poor working conditions
As can be seen in the figure below: agriculture is one of the sectors with the highest proportion of strained jobs (40%) together with health (45%) and transport (42%)[7]. A job is considered as ‘strained’ when the number of job demands (e.g. exposure to physical risks, high work intensity, working at unsocial hours) exceeds the number of resources (e.g. social support, time flexibility, training). Workers in strained jobs are at risk of poorer health and well-being, not only in the short term but also in the medium and longer term[7].
Figure: Job quality index, by sector, EU27 (%)
Source[7]
Workers in the agriculture sector are exposed to numerous physical risks that can contribute to or interact with other potential sources of stress, which may have direct or indirect implications for worker’s health[23] [30]. For example, a number of studies have found that the interaction between psychosocial risks and ergonomic demands on agricultural workers plays a role in the aetiology of lower back pain[31] [32][33].
Seasonal and migrant workers
Seasonal and migrant workers are often employed within the agricultural sector to deal with labour shortages and seasonal demands[23]. The employment of seasonal and migrant workers often raises problems related to their legal status, qualifications, language ability. Issues often include conflicts with the local population, intolerance, discrimination, exposure to racist attitudes, disrespect and isolation and barriers in accessing healthcare services[34].
Additionally migrant workers are often employed in low-paid and unskilled roles, which are typically characterised by poor working conditions (e.g. working long hours, evenings or night work, working during weekends)[35][36]. Seasonal and migrant workers also often work on temporary or flexible contracts, face high occupational insecurity, are weakly represented by trade unions[23] [37], have little or no access to healthcare coverage[38] and face exploitation[39]. Furthermore, migrant workers may face language barriers that make it difficult to communicate work requirements, safety knowledge, training, and career advancement opportunities.
The described risks result in a range of negative health outcomes, physical ones on the one hand but also psychosocial aspects such as anxiety, stress and depression[40].
Digitalisation
Digitalisation covers various aspects of farm management, including the use of advanced machinery and sensors to monitor the health of crops and livestock, and is transforming the sector by increasing efficiency, optimising resource use, improving productivity, as well as reducing OSH risks and improving the working environment[4]. However, this change brings challenges and can have an impact on farmers' mental health. Farmers face increased cognitive workloads due to complex technologies such as cobots, alarm systems and data management tools. A lack of training and expertise adds to the burden. In addition, reduced human presence can lead to monotony and increased loneliness. Organisational change and data vulnerability, such as the risk of hacking and dependence on manufacturers, are recognised as psychosocial risk factors that limit the degree of control over farm management. Financial concerns are also a major issue, as the high costs of investment in digitalisation, together with hidden maintenance costs, may not yield immediate returns and contribute to financial insecurity[4].
Management of psychosocial issues in the agriculture sector
Farmers, as employers, are obliged by European legislation to protect workers’ safety and health including management of psychosocial risks[41]. Prior to any interventions to prevent and manage psychosocial risks and work-related stress, employers, farmers or farm managers should work together with their staff to identify any psychosocial risks by conducting a thorough risk assessment. The European OiRA (Online interactive Risk Analysis tool) for the agriculture sector[42] covers the wide range of OSH risks including psychosocial aspects. It is an EU level tool giving a model approach, referring to EU legislation etc. However, several national partners have also developed national OiRA tools for agriculture[43].
Managing psychosocial risks
All employers in the agriculture sector have a general duty to safeguard the health and safety of their workers in every aspect of employment, including psychosocial well-being. This is highlighted in the OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC[41], which sets out the key elements of OSH management. These include the principle of risk assessment, the implementation of appropriate measures to eliminate, reduce, or control risks, and active worker participation.
Measures to address psychosocial risks should therefore be based on the outcomes of a psychosocial risk assessment. They should also be discussed with farm workers to ensure they effectively cover the diverse range of work-related psychosocial risk factors specific to agriculture.
Examples of possible measures, to be implemented based on the results of the risk assessment, include[42]:
- Managing workload by planning and communicating tasks and schedules in advance, providing back-up for unforeseen circumstances, ensuring adequate recovery time between shifts, and making clear arrangements for breaks and rest periods.
- Promoting regular and open communication by creating opportunities for workers to share experiences, ask questions, and raise concerns. Provide transparent information specifically on situations that might cause uncertainty for workers.
- Providing induction training for all workers (including seasonal workers) to explain how work is organised, what is expected of them, and how they can raise any concerns.
- Enforcing a zero-tolerance policy on harassment and violence and other types of adverse social behaviour by clearly committing to a respectful work environment, encouraging workers to report incidents, and ensuring prompt, impartial follow-up.
The following sections aim to provide some more examples of possible interventions to address work-related psychosocial issues in the agricultural sector, some of them focussed more on farm workers while others are especially useful for farmers owning their own farm.
Workplace policies
Workplace policies can be implemented to address identified psychosocial hazards. The purpose of these policies is to specify what needs to be addressed, how this will be done, and defining the responsibility of the employer and the worker within this respective process. For example:
- Lone working policies can specify what to do when equipment breaks down, the use of communication devices (e.g. radios), and the frequency of communication with farm managers or other farm workers[12] [44].
- Working hours policies may identify the acceptable number of working hours and the flexibility associated with them. These can also include other relevant factors such as length and frequency of breaks, meals, and available facilities[12] .
- Seasonal and migrant workers policies that specify what is expected of the employer from their workers, and what workers can expect in return (e.g. training, contract length, benefits). The EU campaign “Rights for all seasons” provides information and campaign materials on the obligations of employers and the rights of seasonal workers[45].
Training
Training and education can provide farmers and agricultural workers some control over planning difficulties and digitalisation faced in the agriculture sector. By updating their understanding on farming practices, material, new technologies, machinery and business aspects, farmers place themselves in a better position to deal with the uncertainty they might face[46]. New practices or machinery might increase productivity, or diversifying farming focus.
In addition, raising awareness and investing in training is also key to empower farmers as well as stakeholder organisations to address psychosocial risks and promote mental health.
Awareness-raising and knowledge are the starting point to reduce mental health-related stigma and to understand how to overcome barriers connected with accessing resources and services[4].
Improving social support
Agricultural networks (e.g. farmers’ unions or societies) are an important form of social support. Networks provides farmers with the possibility to get together, share and discuss common problems, and to obtain useful information on various farming issues (e.g. good farming practices, health and safety, coping with issues etc.)[18]. There are different possibilities for farmers to get involved in such networks, including participation at agricultural shows, markets and organising sporting or other activities and groups (e.g. voluntary or community organisations). More informally, another source of support is the local farming community[18] [28]. The community allows for day-to-day emotional support, help during busy times carrying out particular works, looking after the neighbour’s livestock, and other supportive behaviours in difficult situations[18] [47]. Beyond this community, developing a personal social network has also been found to be beneficial to farmers[9]. These relationships encompass spouses, family members, neighbours and friends from the non-farming community[23] [30].
Improving formal support
Formal support for farmers is rendered by various governmental and non-governmental organisations[18] [48]. The support provided may be proactive (e.g. providing advisory services at agricultural shows, home visits, etc.) or reactive in nature (e.g. help-lines, free counselling offers, assistance with form-filling and similar activities); and can include topics such as mental health and well-being, but can also include administrative support and financial management9 [18]. It is, however, vital that any support initiative aimed at agriculture workers acknowledges the realities of rural life and the nature of farming problems[23]. Examples of such initiatives as well as further suggestions on prevention strategies and policy pointers can be found in the EU-OSHA report Mental health in agriculture: preventing and managing psychosocial risks for farmers and farm workers[4].
Measures targeting migrant workers
For migrant and seasonal workers, other specific measures going beyond the psychosocial risk assessment and the implementation of organisational and technical measures are mentioned in the literature and interviews in the EU-OSHA report. These measures include agricultural skills training, support in overcoming legal obstacles, addressing irregular employment, and improving access to healthcare. Initiatives from employer associations that foster integration through language courses and housing support were also emphasised[4].
