Agriculture - Use of pesticides/plant protection products

Introduction

Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill or control insects, weeds, fungi, rodents and microbes. Many pesticides have been found to be harmful to human and animal health or to the environment. As pesticides are used in many different sectors (e.g. agriculture, forestry, food industry, etc.) they may put workers in different occupations at risk of acute poisoning or occupational diseases^[1]. This article gives a short introduction on pesticide classification, labelling and information system, presents information on related health problems, description of how exposure may take place and requirements for safe handling of pesticides with the emphasis on agricultural production.

General information about pesticides/plant protection products

Definitions

Agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, food industry, processing, transportation and storage of wood and other biological products are sectors where various pests (e.g. weeds, insects, birds, rodents, fungi, moulds, etc.) can significantly affect the quantity and quality of products. Certain species of pests can also damage buildings, installations, furniture, cloths, etc., spread infectious or cause other diseases. Therefore, pest control is an important activity intended to reduce or eliminate yield losses, maintain high quality of products and prevent other undesirable effects that may be caused by pests.

Pest control is implemented by physical, chemical and biological methods and the choice of the particular method depends on various conditions (type of industry, species, amount and distribution of pests, environmental conditions, etc.). The most effective methods of pest control are based on the use of chemicals named ‘pesticides’. The largest users of pesticides are agriculture and forestry. Pesticides are also widely used in different industries, trade, storage and other sectors of economic activity and household. Adequate application of pesticides produces good results in terms of protecting products and improving quality, saving labour costs and achieving a significant economic benefit^[2] [3].

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) presents following definition of pesticides: ‘Pesticide means any substance, or mixture of substances of chemical or biological ingredients intended for repelling, destroying or controlling any pest, or regulating plant growth’^[4].

The term 'pesticide' is often used interchangeably with 'plant protection product' (PPP)^[5], but there is an important distinction. Plant protection products are a specific category of 'pesticides' used to protect crops or desirable or useful plants. Pesticide is a broader term that also includes substances used for non-agricultural purposes, such as biocides. Biocides are designed to control harmful organisms as well, but their use is not primarily related to plant protection. Instead, they are used to protect humans, animals and materials. Common examples include disinfectants, rodenticides, wood preservatives, and insect sprays[6]. Within the EU legislation, plant protection products and biocides are regulated under separate legislative frameworks (see below)^[5]. 

PPP have one of the following functions^[5]:

• protect plants or plant products against pests/diseases, before or after harvest;
• influence the life processes of plants (such as substances influencing their growth, excluding nutrients);
• preserve plant products;
• destroy or prevent growth of undesired plants or parts of plants.

PPP contain at least one active substance and usually also other components (co-formulants) as well as safeners and synergists5:

• active substance: ‘any chemical, plant extract, pheromone or micro-organism (including viruses), that has action against 'pests' or on plants, parts of plants or plant products’.
• safener: ‘substance or preparation, which is added to a plant protection product to eliminate or reduce phytotoxic effects of the plant protection product on certain plants’.
• synergist: substance or preparation which, while showing no or only weak activity against pests can give enhanced activity to the active substance(s) in a plant protection product.

Classification of pesticides

In general groups of pesticides are classified and named according to the type of pest they control (Table 1).

Table 1: Classification of pesticides based on their purpose

Source: Environmental Protection Agency (US) ^[8] 

Pesticides can also be grouped into chemical families, because they share similar chemical structures and properties, or because they act on pests in comparable ways. Some of the most common families are^{[9] [10] [11] [12]}:

• Organochlorines – These compounds are no longer authorised in the EU, since many are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). A well-known example is DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).
• Organophosphates – Primarily used as insecticides. Examples include chlorpyrifos and dimethoate. They were introduced as alternatives to organochlorines because they degrade more quickly in the environment, but many are highly toxic to humans and non-target species.
• Carbamates – Another group of insecticides with generally shorter environmental persistence than organochlorines, but still considered highly toxic. Examples include carbaryl, methomyl, and propoxur.
• Pyrethroids – Synthetic active ingredients that are derived from naturally occurring flower substances. Pyrethroids are usually non-persistent in the environment and have moderate acute toxicity. Examples include permethrin, cypermethrin, and deltamethrin.

Use of pesticides in the EU

Key figures on the consumption of pesticides are available at the Eurostat website since it is one of the 28 agri-environmental indicators that have been set up in order to monitor the integration of environmental concerns into the Common agricultural policy (CAP) of the EU. Data show that the EU experienced a further decline in pesticide sales in 2023, with total sales falling to around 292,000 tonnes. This was the lowest level since records began in 2011. The decline followed a sharp fall in sales in 2022. The main reasons for this include rising pesticide costs and an economic slowdown[^13]. However, broader global trends affect pesticide use and risk in Europe. Climate change is altering pest distribution and may trigger increased pesticide use. At the same time, pesticide pollution reduces natural pest control and encourages organisms to become resistant to pesticides, leading to a vicious cycle of increased pesticide use.

Risks of pesticides to human health

The risks that pesticides pose to human health depend on both their intrinsic properties (e.g. active substances and co-formulants) and the conditions of use. Important factors include frequency and volume of application, method of application, and characteristics of the treated crop and soil^[14].

People may be exposed to pesticides through their diet, environment, or workplace. Dietary exposure is the main route for the general population, primarily from residues on fruit and vegetables, but also through food of animal origin. Pesticides can also contaminate drinking water^[14].

Occupational exposure occurs when workers in agriculture, forestry, or urban pest control apply pesticides, maintain spraying machinery, or handle treated materials (see also below)^[14]. Exposure may occur via the skin (dermal), mouth (oral), or lungs (inhalation)^[15].

Both acute and chronic health effects have been associated with pesticide exposure. Acute toxicity of a pesticide is its ability to cause harmful health disorders which develop rapidly (in a few seconds, minutes, hours or a day) after absorption of a single dose or repeated exposure over a short time (e.g. one day). Such an accident may occur e.g. during mixing or applying pesticides^{[1] [16]}. Acute health effects include^{[15] [11] [14] [17]}.

• irritation of the skin, eyes
• respiratory tract irritation, sore throat
• headaches, dizziness
• nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea
• in severe cases: loss of consciousness, extreme weakness, seizures and/or death

Estimation of the acute toxicity of pesticide is generally based on the standard test results on rats and other animals^{[1] [16]}. 

The ability of a pesticide to cause adverse health effects after long-term or repeated exposure (e.g. when the operator is frequently exposed to a pesticide spray during its application) is referred to as sub-chronic or chronic toxicity. Sub-chronic toxicity refers to a period of a few weeks to a few months, while chronic toxicity refers to a period of a few months to a few years. Pesticides that tend to accumulate or break down slowly in the human body are usually the greatest hazard of chronic exposure.

Chronic health effects of pesticides include^{[15] [11] [14] [17]}:

• Cancer, including leukaemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, prostate, breast, and bladder cancer.
• neurological conditions, increased risk of Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, other neurotoxic effects, and cognitive impairment.
• respiratory illnesses, chronic cough, wheezing, asthma, bronchitis, and reduced lung function.
• reproductive and endocrine disorders, infertility, developmental and reproductive problems, and hormone-related disturbances.

Estimation of the sub-chronic and chronic toxicity of a pesticide is based on a number of different long-term tests (periods ranging from 30 to 90 days for the sub-chronic and about 90 days to several years for the chronic toxicity) performed on animals in order to predict long-term effects which may be cause by a pesticide^{[1] [16]}.  

Pesticide Data Sheets (PDSs) are issued to present the basic toxicological and other relevant information on individual pesticides that is essential for their safe use. The PDSs are prepared by the WHO in collaboration with the FAO, and are presented on the INCHEM website, which is run by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS)[18].

Occupational exposure to pesticides

Occupational exposure to plant protection products (PPPs) occurs when workers are directly involved in activities related to their use, such as the preparation and application of PPPs. These workers are referred to as operators (e.g. farmers and contract applicators)^[19] [20]. In addition, other workers may be indirectly exposed in the course of their work, for instance when entering areas that have been treated with PPPs or when handling treated crops.

Evidently, operators should be considered the group that will be at the greatest exposure due to the nature of following activities related to the use of PPPs:

• Opening containers, weighing, mixing and loading the product into the application machinery.
• Operation of the application machinery.
• Repair of the application machinery whilst it contains a PPP.
• Emptying and cleaning the machinery and containers after use and residue disposal.

Exposure to PPPs can also occur from spills of chemicals, leakages or faulty spraying equipment^[1]. 

The main factors affecting exposure are:

• The form of formulation. Liquids may splash and spill resulting in direct skin contact or indirect skin contact through clothing contamination. Solids may generate dust when loading the product into the application equipment, resulting in exposure of the face and the eyes and respiratory hazards.
• Depending on the type and size of packaging in combination with the pesticide formulation opening the bags can result in some kind of exposure (splash of liquids or spread of dust).
• Weather conditions. Low relative humidity and high temperature cause more rapid evaporation of spray droplets between the spray nozzle and the target and this vapour may reach the operator. These factors also influence the perspiration rate of the human body and operator's decision whether or not to use personal protective equipment. Wind increases spray drifts and results in operators’ extra exposure to a PPP and contamination of areas near the treated field.
• The frequency and duration of PPPs handling both on a seasonal and lifetime basis considerably affects the exposure^[1].

There are three routes in which PPP may enter the body:

• Dermal (absorption through the skin or eyes).
• Oral (swallowing).
• Respiratory (inhalation)^[16].

Dermal exposure. Skin absorption is a common route of operator’s poisoning from PPPs. The process will continue as long as the chemical remains in contact with the skin. Skin contamination may occur due to a splash, spill or drift when mixing, loading or applying a pesticide and contact with residue on application equipment, protective clothing or treated surfaces. Besides, it is very easy to transfer PPP residues from one part of the body to another. PPPs of liquid formulations are absorbed more readily than those formulated as powders, dusts or granules. When handling concentrated PPPs hazard from skin absorption increases. Absorption through wounded skin is particularly hazardous^[16]. 

Oral exposure. The most severe poisoning generally occurs when PPPs are taken in through the mouth. Chemicals may be ingested accidentally or intentionally. The most frequent accidental oral exposure is related to the keeping PPP in an unlabelled bottle or food container instead of its original labelled container. People may be poisoned when drinking PPP from such bottle or by drinking water stored in contaminated container. Operators handling PPPs or application equipment can consume PPP residues from unwashed hands during eating or smoking. PPP may enter applicators mouth when trying to clear a spray line or nozzle by blowing^[16]. 

Inhalation exposure. Inhaled PPPs may cause serious damage to nose, throat and lung tissues or be transferred through the lungs into the bloodstream. Absorption of PPPs through lung tissues is very rapid and complete therefore hazard of poisoning from respiratory exposure is considerable. Respiratory tract may be exposed to PPPs by inhalation of powders, airborne droplets or vapours, namely^[16]:

• The powder which usually contains concentrated active ingredient may be inhaled during opening containers, weighing and mixing operations.
• Inhalation of PPP spray droplets during use of low pressure application equipment is fairly low because most droplets are too large to remain airborne. However, when high pressures or fogging equipment is used, the droplets are in the mist or fog size-range and can be carried on air currents for a large distance thus considerably increasing the potential for respiratory exposure.
• Use of fumigants due to effectiveness of their toxic vapours for a pest control also has the highest hazard with respect to worker exposure to vapours. Some non-fumigant PPPs may also produce vapours being toxic to applicators or bystanders. The hazard is much higher in enclosed spaces with limited air movement (e.g. unventilated storage areas, greenhouses, etc.). Increasing temperature causes higher vapour levels therefore it is recommended that PPPs should not be applied when air temperatures are above 30°C.

In order to determine the seriousness of the poisoning due to exposure to a PPP it is necessary to be aware of the pesticide poisoning symptoms. General symptoms indicating possible pesticide poisoning are the following^[15]:

• Mild poisoning: headache, dizziness, weakness, fatigue, nervousness, loss of appetite, thirst, nausea, irritation of throat and nose, eye irritation, constriction of pupils, blurred vision, skin irritation, changes in mood, loss of weight.
• Moderate poisoning: abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea, excessive salivation, constriction in throat and chest, abdominal cramps, rapid or slow pulse, excessive perspiration, trembling, muscle incoordination, mental confusion and any mild symptoms.
• Severe poisoning: inability to breathe, chemical burns on skin, respiratory distress, loss of reflexes, uncontrollable muscle twitching, unconsciousness, convulsions and any mild or moderate symptoms.

Pesticide poisoning may be obvious when a person is exposed to very high levels of PPP concentration. However very often it is difficult to recognize pesticide poisoning because the symptoms may appear after some time only, be similar to those of other troubles (e.g. flu, cold, food poisoning, etc.) and vary from person to person^[16].

Occupational exposure limits

Occupational exposure limit (OEL) value refers to the limit of the time-weighted average of the concentration of a chemical agent in the air within the breathing zone of a worker in relation to a specified reference period^[21]. Occupational safety and health (OSH) legislation includes indicative occupational exposure limit values (IOELV), binding occupational exposure limit values (BOELV) and binding biological limit values (BBLV). In addition, during the EU approval process for active substances under Regulation 1107/2009/EC^[22] an Acceptable Operator Exposure Level (AOEL) is set for active substances. The level represents the maximum daily amount of an active substance to which operators, workers, bystanders, or residents may be exposed, dermally, by inhalation or orally (not via food), without adverse health effects^[23]. Applicants are obliged to carry out risk assessments for all exposure scenarios involving operators, workers, residents and bystanders that could result from the proposed use of a PPP^[24]. EFSA has developed an Operator Exposure Calculator to support applicants in determining the AOEL^[25].

Public exposure to pesticides

The general public can also be exposed to PPPs. This exposure can be from the direct use of PPPs in residencies and gardens (used by non-professional operators), or the indirect exposure of people who   live, work or attend school or any other institution close to an area that is or has been treated with a PPP. 

In addition, exposure can also occur indirectly through the diet by ingesting residues on food products and drinking water^[26].

Placing pesticides on the market

EU legislation with regard to placing pesticides on the market

Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP)^[27] adopts the UN Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) criteria in all EU Member States Pesticides (including PPPs) fall under the scope of CLP and therefore should be classified by their hazards, suitably packed and labelled before placing them on the market. 
To ensure that chemicals placed on the market do not adversely affect human health or the environment manufacturers, importers and downstream users also have to comply with the provisions of Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)^[28]. REACH imposes the obligation to register any chemical placed on the market and manufacturers must identify and manage the risks linked to these chemicals. They have to demonstrate how the substance can be safely used, and they must communicate the risk management measures to the users. Active substances, safeners and synergists in PPPs that been approved in accordance with Regulation 1107/2009/EC^[29], do not require a registration based on REACH. The list of active substances, safeners and synergists in PPPs is available on the website of the EU Commission^[30].

It has to be noted that only active substances, safeners and synergists can be regarded as registered and that other substances used for producing plant protection products are subject to registration under REACH. Furthermore, the other provisions of REACH such as providing information to users (e.g. Safety Data Sheets (SDS)) do apply^[31]. 

Active substances, safeners and synergist can only be approved for use in PPP if they fulfil the approval criteria that are laid down in Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009. The approval is based on a rigorous and lengthy (approx. 4 years) science-based assessment to ensure the substance is safe to use. The assessment is conducted jointly by the national authorities in EU Member States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). In the first stage of the process, the active substance is assessed and possibly approved at EU level and subsequently there is an assessment and authorisation of the final products by the Member States. Data on approved substances and authorised products are reviewed periodically to reflect scientific progress or whenever needed. A new active substance is usually approved for a maximum period of 15 years, and this approval can be renewed for a period of up to 15 years upon application^[32].

Alongside with the regulation on the placing of the market of PPPs a directive has been adopted, Directive 128/2009/EC, on the sustainable use of pesticides, aimed at reducing environmental and health risks while maintaining crop productivity and improving controls on the use and distribution of pesticides^[19]. This directive requires member states to implement national plans with quantitative objectives, targets, measures and timetables in order to reduce the risks and impact of pesticide use for human health and the environment. In order to monitor the achievements of these national plans Regulation (EU) 2022/2379 concerning statistics on agricultural input and output^[33], sets out rules for collecting information on the annual quantities of PPPs placed on the market and used in each Member State. A key element within the directive 128/2009/EC on the sustainable use of pesticides is the promotion of Integrated Pest Management. Integrated Pest Management aims to keep the use of pesticides to levels that are economically and ecologically justified and which reduce or minimise risk to human health and the environment^{[34] [35] [36].}

Suppliers’ duties to ensure information

Manufacturer, importer or downstream user (natural or legal person who is not the manufacturer or the importer and who uses a substance either on its own or in a mixture in the course of his industrial or professional activities) of pesticides is obliged to classify, label and package them according to CLP before placing on the market. Distributor of pesticides is obliged to ensure their labelling and packaging in accordance with CLP before placing them on the market.

Classification by hazards

The CLP Regulation includes the following health hazard classes and categories:

• Acute toxicity (Category 1, 2, 3 and 4).
• Skin corrosion/irritation (Category 1A, 1B, 1C and 2).
• Serious eye damage/eye irritation (Category 1 and 2).
• Respiratory or skin sensitisation (Category 1).
• Germ cell mutagenicity (Category 1A, 1B and 2).
• Carcinogenicity (Category 1A, 1B and 2).
• Reproductive toxicity (Category 1A, 1B and 2) plus additional category for effects on or via lactation.
• Specific target organ toxicity (STOT) – single exposure ((Category 1, 2) and Category 3 for narcotic effects and respiratory tract irritation only).
• Specific target organ toxicity (STOT) – repeated exposure (Category 1 and 2).
• Aspiration hazard (Category 1)
• Endocrine disruption (Category 1 and 2)^[27] [37]  

If applicable, pesticides also should be classified by physical and environmental hazards. 

Hazard communication

The label of a pesticide is the most important source of information about a pesticide for all participants of the supply chain. Therefore, according to CLP, any packaging containing a pesticide should obligatory be supplied with a label including the following information (labelling elements)^[27]:

• The name, address and telephone number of the supplier(s) of the pesticide.
• The nominal quantity of the substance or mixture in the packages made available to the general public, unless this quantity is specified elsewhere on the package.
• Product identifiers.
• Hazard pictograms.
• Signal words.
• Hazard statements.
• Appropriate precautionary statements.
• Supplemental information, e.g. Unique Formula Identifier 

In addition to the CLP-provisions, pesticides (biocides and PPPs) have to be labelled according to their specific regulations (Biocides regulation 528/2012/EU[^38] Plant Protection Products Regulation 1107/2009/EC22 and the specific regulation on the packaging of PPP (Regulation 547/2011/EU)^[39]. For instance, Regulation 547/2011 sets out specific standard phrases for PPP labels with information on risks to human or animal health or to the environment, and for safety precautions.

The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) is another key element of the hazard communication. The supplier of a pesticide (manufacturer, importer or downstream user) must provide the recipient of the pesticide with a SDS prepared in accordance with the REACH requirements. The SDS is not required when a pesticide is offered or sold to the general public and the users are provided with sufficient safety information, unless requested by a downstream user or distributor^[28]. 

Information in the pesticide SDS (obligatory dated) should be presented using the following headings^[28]:

1. Identification of the substance/preparation and of the company/undertaking.
2. Hazards identification.
3. Composition/information on ingredients.
4. First-aid measures.
5. Fire-fighting measures.
6. Accidental release measures.
7. Handling and storage.
8. Exposure controls/personal protection.
9. Physical and chemical properties.
10. Stability and reactivity.
11. Toxicological information.
12. Ecological information.
13. Disposal considerations.
14. Transport information.
15. Regulatory information.
16. Other information.

Prevention in the workplace

To prevent health hazards resulting from exposure to PPPs, risks must be carefully assessed and appropriate prevention measures implemented. Directive 98/24/EC on the protection of the health and safety of workers from the risks related to chemical agents at work^[21], Directive 2004/37/EC^[40] on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens, mutagens or reprotoxic substances at work and related national OSH legislation oblige the employer to assess any risk to the safety and health of workers arising from the presence of PPPs and take specific prevention measures to manage the risk (to eliminate or reduce it to a minimum). Selection of the prevention measures should be done in accordance with the hierarchy of controls^[21].

Risk assessment

Risk assessment of the PPPs impact on human health is the most important step of the risk management when using PPPs. But carrying out a risk assessment can be challenging because of differences in the periods and the levels of exposure, type of PPPs (regarding toxicity), mixtures or cocktails used in the field, and the geographic and meteorological characteristics of the agricultural areas where PPPs are applied^[41]. Therefore, employers should follow a step-by-step approach of risk management and make use of guidance and tools to identify, assess, control, record, and review the risks. 

Commonly used risk assessment tools include the British COSHH-Essentials^[42], the German EMKG (Einfaches Massnahmenkonzept Gefahrstoffen)^[43] and the Dutch Stoffenmanager^[44]). 

Risk assessment should be done for each operation of PPPs use.

When assessing the risk it is particularly important taking into consideration the following:

• Hazardous properties of PPPs.
• Information on safety and health provided by the supplier (e.g. the relevant label and SDS.
• Occupational exposure limit values (OELV) and Acceptable Operator Exposure Level (AOEL)  
• The level, type and duration of exposure.
• The amounts used
• Type of application equipment
• The circumstances of work, e.g. location (confined spaces, open areas), weather conditions
• The effect of preventive measures taken or to be taken.
• Where available, the conclusions to be drawn from any health surveillance already undertaken. 

After the risk assessment the next steps of the risk management (risk control, review and update of the process, and documentation of the process) are undertaken.

Preventing or adequately controlling exposure to PPPs involves a combination of following measures listed in order of priority

• Measures at source (e.g. elimination or substitution).
• Technical, engineering measures.
• Organisational measures.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE).

Measures at source

The best way to reduce the risk for workers is avoiding exposure by eliminating the use of PPPs or substituting PPPs. The substitution of PPPs can be achieved by replacing hazardous substances by less hazardous or non-hazardous substances, or by technological or organisational measures that ensure equivalent pest control results. 

There are different alternatives to PPPs including use of adequate cultivation techniques, , the use of resistant/tolerant cultivars, use of biological pest controls (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides) and methods of interfering with insect breeding. The cultivation practices include the use of balanced fertilisation, growing multiple types of plants, crop rotation, planting crops in areas where the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting according to when pests will be least problematic, and use of the trap crops that attract pests away from the real crop. Release of other organisms that fight the pest is another alternative to the PPPs use. These organisms can include natural predators or parasites of the pests. 

Strategies to reduce the use of PPPs align with the EU Farm to Fork strategy^[45] and the EU  Directive 2009/128/EC establishing a framework for the Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides19. According to the Directive, achievement of a sustainable use of pesticides should be implemented “by reducing the risks and impacts of pesticide use on human health and the environment and promoting the use of integrated pest management and of alternative approaches or techniques such as non-chemical alternatives to pesticides"^[19]. Integrated pest management involves a careful consideration of all available plant protection methods and keep the use of PPPs to levels that are economically and ecologically justified and reduce or minimise risks to human health and the environment^[46].

Technical, engineering measures – machinery and equipment for plant protection product application

When measures at source cannot sufficiently reduce the release of dangerous substances, technical measures for reducing dispersion of chemicals and consequently exposure of workers should be (additionally) considered. As the greatest exposure occurs during handling of the pesticide concentrates, appropriate mixing facilities and application equipment must be provided.

According to the legislation on placing machinery on the market (machinery Directive 2006/42/EC^[47] repealed by Regulation (EU) 2023/1230 on machinery^[48]. This Regulation applies from 20 January 2027) all machinery used for the application of PPPs must comply with the essential health and safety requirements laid down in the Directive/Regulation. 
This machinery includes self-propelled, towed, vehicle-mounted, semi-mounted, airborne and stationary machinery intended for PPPs application, both for professional and non-professional use, as well as powered or manually-operated portable and handheld machinery with a pressure chamber. Manufacturers of machinery for pesticide application are responsible for certifying the conformity of their machinery to  the safety and health requirements. Products that meet these requirements bear the CE-marking. The requirements concern ensuring the application control and monitoring, safe machinery filling, emptying and application of PPP (including application rate, distribution, deposition and drift of PPP, tests and losses during stoppage), proper machinery maintenance and inspections, and also the information which should be provided in the machinery instructions.

When choosing equipment, employers should^[49]:

• choose suitable spraying equipment: the type of spraying equipment must be in line with the requirements stated on the label/ Safety Data Sheet (SDS) of the product.
• prefer spraying equipment/application methods that provide adequate protection from exposure such as a closed vehicle cab with air-intake filters, low drift sprayers, drones (unmanned aerial spray systems)
• ensure all equipment meets legal requirements (CE-marking)
• ensure all spraying equipment is transported, used and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
• provide information on the plant protection product carried in the equipment. The information has to noted and fitted to the equipment.

Organisational measures

Information and training of all workers is a particularly important measure for minimising exposure in the case of use of PPPs. Importance of information and training of workers exposed to chemical agents is emphasised by Directive 98/24/EC^[21] and by Directive 2004/37/EC^[40] which obliges the employer to ensure that workers and/or their representatives should be provided with^[21]:

• Information on the risks of exposure to hazardous chemical agents including PPPs based on the results of the risk assessment
• Training and information on appropriate measures and actions to be taken in order to protect themselves and others.
• Access to the relevant safety data sheets.

According to Directive 2009/128/EC^[19]. Member States must set up systems of both initial and additional training for distributors, advisors and professional users of PPPs and certification system. The latter is necessary to record such training so that those who use or will use pesticides are fully aware of the potential risks to human health and the environment and of the appropriate measures to reduce these risks^[19]. Thus, the essential safety requirement is that persons can handle PPPs only if they have an appropriate certificate of competence.

Training workers for safe work practices on the basis of risk assessment is an important element of OSH management. Trained workers will be aware of the risk of exposure and of what they need to do to control their exposure, therefore they will work not only more efficiently, but also more safely and with less risk to their health.
Most Member States have published guidelines, recommendations or codes of practice for using PPPs which may be helpful for training purposes and help to comply with an appropriate legislation^[50].

Personal hygiene is extremely important when handling PPPs as it may have a substantial impact on the workers exposure. General requirement is that during work workers should not touch their face or other bare skin with dirty hands or gloves. Persons working with PPPs have at least to wash face and hands before eating, drinking, smoking or going to the toilet. Special attention to personal hygiene must be paid during the worker training.

Health surveillance means the monitoring of persons in order to identify changes (if any) in their health due to exposure to hazardous substances. The purpose of this preventive measure is to protect workers’ health by detecting at an early stage any harm which may be caused by the exposure. Therefore, according to Directive 98/24/EC Member States must introduce arrangements for carrying out appropriate health surveillance of workers for whom the results of the risk assessment reveal any risk to health arising from the presence of chemical agents^[21]. 

Risk assessment of the PPPs possible impact on human health should identify the need to check the health of employees who could be exposed to these PPPs. In turn the health surveillance helps employers to judge the effectiveness of the control measures.

Arrangements should be made to ensure that any exposed person can easily report any symptoms to a medical officer or a supervisor, who will then bring the complaint to the attention of a medical officer. Any undue prevalence of illness not associated with well-recognised signs and symptoms of poisoning by the particular PPP should be noted and reported to the appropriate health authorities. Individual health and exposure records should be made and kept up-to-date for each worker who undergoes health surveillance^[21].

Other organisational or administrative measures can be used to reduce the exposure to PPPs such as:

• Job rotation of workers.
• Organising and planning the application of PPPs, e.g. taking into account weather conditions (avoid drift), the presence of other workers in the area, bystanders.
• Appropriate signage and notice boards (type of product, re-entry period) to restrict access and inform workers and other persons (e.g. visitors, playing children) on the application of PPP.

Use of personal protective equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is considered the least effective prevention measure and should only be used if other control measures are not feasible or insufficient to control the risk. 

The type of PPE depends on the product, the tasks and the circumstances. The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) provides information on the required PPE and may include: 

• Head protection.
• Eye and face protection.
• Respiratory protection.
• Protective gloves.
• Protective clothes.
• Protective footwear.

The main requirements for the use of PPE are^[51]:

• Protective equipment should be in a good condition and fit well. Each PPE is for individual use and should fit properly to the person.
• Filter or cartridge of respiratory equipment should be changed regularly according to the information provided by the manufacturer.
• Gloves must provide adequate protection against the PPP used (chemical resistant), fit the hands comfortably and be flexible enough (allow sufficient dexterity)
• Gloves and boots should be washed before removal in order to avoid self-contamination.
• The clothes should be resistant against the PPPs used and washable.
• Garments should be washed separately from other clothes.
• Re-usable PPE should be stored in a clean, dry and well-ventilated room separated from other clothing or living accommodation.
• Contamination of work clothes through/by protective equipment should be avoided.
• Personal protective equipment should be used even on a hot and humid day.
• Provision of adequate washing facilities and changing rooms where workers can wash up and remove their PPE.