Manufacturing

Introduction

Manufacturing refers to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech. It is the production of goods - using labour, machines, tools, chemical / biological processing, etc. Such finished goods may, in turn, be used for the manufacture of other, more complex products, e.g. computers, aircraft, or automobiles. Alternatively, they may be sold to wholesalers, who supply the retailers that sell them on to end users.

The NACE classification has a section for manufacturing (section C). This excludes agriculture, mining, electricity generation, construction, etc.

This article will look at typical problems in this sector for SMEs and large companies, describing the effects of such trends as short work contracts, labour leasing, and increasing stress; it also highlights prevention and control measures.

Definitions and descriptions

The Business directory defines the manufacturing sector as an agglomeration of industries engaged in chemical, mechanical, or physical transformation of materials, substances, or components, into consumer or industrial goods.^[1] Manufacturing aims at the production of goods, using labour, machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. The term is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a larger scale, and then used along the supply chain.^[2] The NACE classification for manufacturing (section C) includes food production, textiles, wood and wood products including paper, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. However, it excludes agriculture, mining, electricity and gas generation, water supply, waste management, construction, and transportation.

Table 1: Important subsectors of section C – Manufacturing according to NACE classification (Rev. 2)

Source: Compiled by the author

Figures and trends

Comparing the three overarching sectors of the economy in the EU27 - agriculture, industry and service - service is the largest. Its proportion of employment continues to grow (from 63.1% in 2000 to 66.9% in 2007). ^[3] Nevertheless, when looking at the NACE sections, manufacture still comes first or second regarding both the number of workers and the gross value added (GVA) between 2000 and 2010 (see: Sectors and occupations). This underlines the strong position this sector still has in the European economy.

In comparison to the number employed, manufacturing accounts for relatively few accidents, as shown in the following tables.

Fatal accidents

The following comparative table shows the number and trends of fatal accidents in selcted sectors:

Table 2: Fatal accidents EU-27 (and in comparison with Croatia and UK)

(*) Cases per 100,000 workers

Source: Compiled by the author, adapted from ESAW^[4] and Eurostat^[5]

Although the number of accidents is quite high (second highest among all sectors), the incidence rate is relatively low (about average of all sectors), due to determined efforts by all stakeholders, e.g. the widespread company policies for zero accidents. However, a closer look at the sub-sectors shows that the picture can be quite diverse, e.g. the incidence rate can be as low as 0.90 and as high as 4.19 (in 2010).

Whilst data for these sub-sectors (NACE division level) are not available for EU-27, Eurostat published the following figures in 2013 for Germany (sector incidence rate: in 2010: 1.18; fatality number: 99)^[5]:

Table 3: Fatal accidents in manufacturing sub-sectors (Germany)

":" means data not available

Source: Compiled by the author, adapted from Eurostat^[5]

According to the incidence rates, the most risky sub-sectors in Germany are:

1. Manufacture of beverages
2. Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture; manufacture of articles of straw and plaiting materials
3. Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products (e.g. glass, porcelain, cement, concrete)
4. Repair and installation of machinery and equipment
5. Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment (e.g. metal structures, tanks, treatment and coating)
6. Printing and reproduction of recorded media;

Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products

For the UK, we have an incidence rate for the manufacturing sector of 1.01 - equivalent to 28 fatalities. Eurostat published figures for the following sub-sectors (NACE division level) in 2010:

Table 4: Manufacture sub-sectors and fatal accidents

Source: Compiled by the author, adapted from Eurostat^[5]

Gender

The following table shows the difference in fatal accidents in the sector, according to gender.

Table 5: Fatal accidents in the manufacturing sector by gender'

Source: Adapted from ESAW^[4] and Eurostat^[6]

The comparatively low incidence rate among females can be attributed to women working in lower risk workplaces such as offices.

Company size

The following table shows the relationship between fatal accidents in the sector and the company size.

Table 6: Breakdown of fatal accidents in the manufacturing sector, according to company size

Source: Eurostat^[7]

The highest numbers of fatal accidents can be observed in micro enterprises and SMEs, i.e. small and medium sized enterprises employing between 1 and 249 workers.

Non-fatal accidents

The following table shows the number and trends of non-fatal accidents in the sector (in comparison to other sectors).

Table 7: Non-fatal accidents EU-27 (and in comparison with Croatia and UK) (year, number and incidence)

(*) Cases per 100,000 workers (**) More than three days lost; lost days not specified for the other columns

Source: Compiled by the author, adapted from Eurostat^{[8] [9] [10]}

Similar to the data for fatal accidents, the number of non-fatal accidents is quite high (highest among all sectors), but the incidence rate is relatively low (ranked fifth among all sectors). However, a closer look at the sub-sectors reveals a more diverse picture. See the following table (incidents rates are not available):

Table 8: Non-fatal accidents in manufacturing sub-sectors (EU-27) (year, number)

Source: Compiled by the author, adapted from Eurostat^[8]

The riskiest sub-sectors (EU-27), as measured by the total number of accidents (incidence rates are not available), are:

1. Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment (e.g. metal structures, tanks, treatment and coating)
2. Manufacture of food products
3. Manufacture of machinery and equipment NEC (e.g. pumps, gears, furnaces, cranes, machinery for agriculture, mining, metallurgy, textile production)
4. Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products (e.g. glass, porcelain, cement, concrete)
5. Manufacture of basic metals
6. Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
7. Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers

Gender

The following table shows the difference in non-fatal accidents in the sector, according to gender.

Table 9: Non-fatal accidents in the manufacturing sector by gender

Source: Adapted from ESAW^[4]

Similar to the data for fatal accidents, the comparatively low incidence rate among females can be attributed to the women working in lower risk workplaces, such as offices.

Company size

The following table shows the relationship between non-fatal accidents in the sector and the company size.

Table 10: Breakdown of non-fatal accidents (more than 3 days lost) in the manufacturing sector, according to company size

Source: Eurostat^[7]

The highest numbers are found in SMEs, i.e. small and medium sized enterprises employing between 10 and 249 workers.

Evaluation regarding accidents

The sector has made continuous progress in reducing the number and incidence rate of accidents. It has also benefited from the outsourcing of especially risky work (e.g. maintenance, electroplating), as well as labour leasing, service contracts, and the fact that ever more people report to work despite being sick. Moreover, workers and the trade unions have welcomed the determination shown by many employers to achieve ‘zero accidents’ (especially pushed by US capital), which has contributed greatly to the continuous downward trend.

The situation in smaller companies is worse, due to their limited capacity to deal with more complex OSH issues.

Occupational health

Whereas accident statistics show a downward trend, there was a clear increase from 1999 to 2007 in the proportion of people with work-related health problems, according to the LFS (Labour Force Survey) ad hoc modules^[3] (see the following table).

Table 11: Reported work-related health problems by sector

(*) Prevalence describes the proportion of a studied group found to have a condition/disease as compared to the number of people studied. This is contrasted with incidence, which is a measure of new cases arising over a given period.

Source: Established by the author, based on Eurostat^{[11] [12]}

The number of workers reporting a work-related health problem in the manufacturing sector more than doubled between 1999 and 2007. However, comparing the positions of the sectors (last column in table 11), manufacturing keeps a position in the middle.

Health problems in the manufacturing sector (as reported in 1999) are shown in the following table:

Table 12: Types of health problem reported in the manufacturing sector

Source: Established by the author, based on Eurostat^{[11] [12]}

The Labour Force Survey 2007 found 47.9% of manufacturing workers reported exposure to factors that adversely affect physical well-being;^[13] 23.3% reported exposure to factors that adversely affect mental well-being.^[14]

In 2003, Bofetta and colleagues note that only a limited number of clearly defined individual factors are established occupational carcinogens. However, there is considerable evidence of the increased risks associated with particular industries and occupations, although often no specific agents can be identified as aetiological factors. This concerns many sub-sectors of the manufacturing sector^[15]:

Table 13: Occupations or industries that have been evaluated by IARC as definitely (group 1), probably (group 2A), or possibly (group 2B) entailing excess risk of cancer.

Source: Established by the authors, adapted from^{[15] [16]}

During a 2009 presentation, Takala and Schneider from EU-OSHA stated that approx. 167,000 work-related deaths occur annually in the EU-27, a figure based on Finnish and EU-OSHA research as well as ILO estimates,^[17] and including accidents and violence (5%). Of the more than 160,000 deaths, almost 74,000 can be attributed to dangerous substances. Whereby about half of these can, in turn, be attributed to asbestos. Especially in shipyards, asbestos use was very common and, because of the long latency period, the number of workers developing (and dying of) e.g. malignant mesothelioma is still growing.

Recognized occupational diseases

A 2004 publication by Eurostat showed that in 2001 the manufacturing sector had the most recognized occupational diseases of all sectors (EU-12 extrapolated to EU-15), accounting for 20,266 cases. Mining and quarrying was 2nd, with 8,387 cases, and construction 3rd, with 6,518 cases).^[18]

Evaluation regarding occupational health

While the sector has made progress in reducing accidents, work-related diseases are still increasing, especially musculoskeletal diseases and psychosocial problems. Greater coordinated efforts by all stakeholders are required to reverse this trend.

Legal requirements

Directive 1989/391/EEC - the “framework directive" - is the 'basic law' on occupational safety and health in the EU. Under this general directive, several so-called ‘daughter directives’ were adopted, some of which address the situation in specific sectors. There is no specific directive for the manufacturing sector, but several of these daughter directives are relevant. such as directives on minimum safety and health requirements for: the workplace, the use of work equipment, the use of PPE, the handling of loads, the protection from exposure to carcinogens and mutagens, explosive atmospheres, noise, vibration, etc.

Hazards and risks

In general, workers in this sector have to handle tools and equipment, operate machines, and/or work in complex plants. Therefore, the biggest hazards come from human-machine interaction, noise, agents used or generated during the work (cooling lubricants, paints, solvents, welding fumes, dust, DME), untidy workplaces (slips, trips and falls), repetitive/strenuous working positions, lifting heavy loads, and psychosocial stress.

ILO descriptions

The International Labour Organization has analysed the working conditions in several manufacturing subsectors, such as the food industry, the paper and pulp industry, chemical processing, electrical appliances, printing, metal processing, and the textile goods industry.^[19]

In the Iron and steel industry, by way of example, ILO have identified a range of problems, such as: ergonomics (e.g. for furnace bricklayers), noise, vibration, heat exposure, radioactive nuclides (included in scrap as measuring devices), dust and fumes, silica, heavy metals, acid mists, sulphur compounds, oil mists, PAHs (polycyclic hydrocarbons), various other chemicals (nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, benzene, etc.), and high stress levels.

Working conditions survey

The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) carried out a secondary statistical analysis of the data from the fourth European Working Conditions Surveys (EWCS), which looked at sector working conditions in the 27 Member States.^[20] Eurofound published the following profiles, which present sub-sectors of manufacturing:

• Chemicals, rubber and mineral products
• Clothes, textiles and leather
• Electrical, medical and optical equipment
• Food, beverages and tobacco
• Furniture and recycling
• Manufacture of cars and other transport vehicles
• Metal products and machinery
• Printing and publishing
• Wood and paper manufacturing

The results are presented in the following table.

Table 14: Fourth European Working Conditions Surveys (EWCS) scores on reporting of unfavourable conditions - statistically significant differences from average

Source: Established by the author, based on Eurofound^[21]

Workers of almost all nine sub-sectors covered by the survey mention the exposure to ambient risks, while workers from six complain about the levels of control over the work process.

Prevention and control measures

After the hazards have been identified, the next step is to determine who will be exposed to these hazards and to what extent. This will then lead to the identification of the necessary prevention and control measures, including reassessing the effectiveness of existing measures. The selection of measures has to follow a certain hierarchy to ensure that the most effective measures (e.g. avoidance and substitution) are considered first, and the least effective (e.g. personal protective equipment) are seen as the last resort. It is advisable to involve the workers into this risk assessment process, as they have sound knowledge about the conditions and risks at their own workplaces.

The avoidance of risks can include using: drilling or milling processes and tools that do not need cooling lubricants, electrically powered vehicles instead of petrol or gas machines, lifting equipment, etc.

Substitution of hazardous chemicals or processes by less hazardous ones include: the use of water based paints, aqueous cleaning processes, TIG welding,

The application of engineering controls include: enclosures for machines, local exhausts, etc.

The application of organisational controls includes: separation of vehicles from pedestrian traffic, controls for the storage and safe handling of raw materials, products, by-products and waste, restricted access to specific areas for experienced workers only, application of ergonomic principles to design of equipment, machine controls and tools, work organisation, job structure and content, and application of health monitoring.

The use of personal protection equipment (PPE) when prevention and control measures do not suffice, e.g. shields, gloves, safety glasses and goggles, hearing protectors, respirators, and foot and body protection.

Training and instruction should accompany all types of measures, to ensure that workers know the new methods and processes, and have practiced them.

Safe behaviour

Unfortunately, the manipulation of engineering controls is not uncommon: The German Social Accident Insurance DGUV established that approx. 37% of all safety appliances for metal processing machines in Germany are bypassed.^[22] In most cases, the reason is the time factor, i.e. workers feel disrupted in their work process, or they feel under time pressure. As a result, the behaviour of workers has come into focus, and some institutions have complemented hierarchical systems with a further level of ‘behavioural oriented measures’, i.e. measures to foster safer behaviour. These measures include peer-observation and peer-discussion; they require such conditions as ‘example setting’ by superiors, the establishing of a no-blame culture among managers and supervisors, and appreciating proposals by fast and diligent feed-back.^[23]

Outlook

Efforts to reduce the number of accidents have proved successful, but need to be continued and supplemented by measures to improve safe behaviour.

Much remains to be done on occupational health. The technological developments which have reduced the lifting of heavy loads have not brought about the expected decrease in the number of back disorder incidents. In an article published in 2009 [18], Hartmann and Spallek argue that physical work can have a clear positive effect on physical health. They recommend that demands that are too high / low be avoided - the aim should be for an individual optimum. General preventive measures are not enough; individual measures that match individual workplaces are needed. Concepts along these lines have been developed, e.g. “Moving with Awareness" (for cleaners) and “ERGO-PHYS". See also: Strategies to tackle musculoskeletal disorders at work

It is high time that psychosocial health problems were considered in risk assessments in companies and organisations. More campaigns are needed to raise awareness, involving social partners and authorities. See also: Occupational safety and health risk assessment methodologies, Interventions to prevent and manage psychosocial risks and work-related stress.