Skip to main content

Introduction

Work-related diseases cause great losses to employees, companies and society at large. The work-related attributable fraction (AF) of many diseases may be considerable although it does not always mean that the disease is also recognised as an occupational disease. About 26% of low back pain has been estimated to be work-related [1] and 3.2% to 4.6% of all cancer deaths are due to occupational exposure[2]. Different methods have been developed for the evaluation of economic costs to companies and society. Disease-adjusted life years (DALYs) are often used as a measure to estimate the burden of occupational and work-related diseases.

Definitions

The term burden of disease (BOD) can be defined as the total, cumulative consequences of a defined disease or a range of harmful diseases with respect to disabilities in a community. These consequences include health, social aspects and costs to society. The gap between an ideal situation, where everyone lives free of disease and disability, and the accumulated current health status is defined as the burden of disease [3]. It is a statistical measure indicative of premature death and loss of healthy life years through disabling disease and is often measured by disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). In addition to diseases, also work-related accidents contribute to BOD, causing premature death and serious injuries decreasing the quality of life. Work-related diseases and accidents are responsible for costs to individual employees, employers, companies, insurance companies and to the society at large.

According to EU-OSHA a work-related disease is any illness caused or made worse by workplace factors. This includes many diseases that have more complex causes, involving a combination of occupational and non-work-related factors [4]. Many common diseases are partly caused by occupational factors, even though this is not the main cause for the disease. A distinction can be made between occupational disease and work-related disease, namely:

  • An occupational disease is a case of disease recognised by the national authorities as being caused by a factor at work. Occupational diseases are illnesses primarily caused by a physical, chemical or biological factor at the workplace. Their attributable fraction is more than 50%. Occupational diseases can have temporary or permanent consequences. There are some differences between the recognition schemes of the EU countries in this respect which makes comparison between countries difficult. Examples of occupational diseases include noise-induced hearing loss, repetitive strain injuries, asbestosis.
  • Work-related diseases (WRD) comprise occupational diseases and also other diseases, whose aetiology is partly affected by work-related factors, but their attributable fraction is less than 50%. These kinds of diseases include musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), cardiovascular diseases, many respiratory diseases, mental health disorders and many types of cancer.
  • An occupational accident is defined as a discrete occurrence in the course of work which leads to physical or mental harm [5]. In the worst-case scenario, it represents a fatal occupational accident. Occupational accidents may cause occupational injuries.
  • Occupational injury is bodily damage resulting from work.

Due to the great variety of workers' compensation systems in the EU, different definitions are used for occupational accidents and diseases resulting in different practices for reporting and recording these cases.

Methods and metrics

Attributable fraction

The attributable fraction (AF) takes into account both the relative risk of becoming ill from an exposure and the proportion of workers exposed to it. The calculation of burden of disease is carried out on the basis of disease and cause of death registers and epidemiologic studies of specific exposed groups. Attributable fraction (AF) is defined as the fraction of diseases (morbidity or mortality), which could have been avoided by removing the exposure or some other risk factor. Often the term population attributable fraction (PAF) or population attributable risk is used, when studies/evaluations refer to the whole population [6]. The attributable fraction can be calculated using the following formula presented originally by Levin [7]:

AF = [p x (RR-1)]/[(p x (RR-1) + 1], where 

p = proportion of exposed population,  
RR = relative risk of exposed population compared with the whole population (to a specific disease/outcome)

When using Levin's formula for calculating the attributable fraction, one should be aware that this formula is sensitive to various confounders. The relative risks obtained from epidemiologic studies may be influenced by several confounders such as individual lifestyle factors (e.g. smoking frequency, alcohol consumption, physical fitness, obesity) and exposure to other occupational factors. These factors depend on the study design, and the health outcomes and exposures under study. They are difficult to eliminate completely, although they are duly taken into account in most epidemiological studies.

The AF not only takes into account the relative risk of the disease but also the proportion of subjects exposed within the population. For instance, the fraction of lung cancers attributable to asbestos in a country is determined by the proportion of people exposed to this agent [8]. The data visualisation tool based on the joint estimates of the World Health Organisation (WHO)/International Labour Organisation (ILO) joint methodology for estimating the work-related burden of disease and injury includes AF according to country and illness[9].

Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs)

DALYs have often been used as a measure of the burden of disease. The concept has been mainly developed within the WHO and World Bank. DALYs offer the possibility to take into account both premature mortality and the decreased quality of life due to a disease. DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Years) for an illness or health condition are calculated as the sum of the YLL (Years of Life Lost) due to premature mortality in the population and the YLD (Years Lived with Disability) for people living with the health condition or its consequences [10].

DALY = YLL + YLD

The YLD for a particular cause in a particular time period, is estimated by multiplying the number of incident cases in that period (I = number of cases attributable to exposure) with the average duration of the illness (L) and a weight factor (DW) that reflects the severity of the disease on a scale from 0 (perfect health) to 1 (dead) [10].

YLD = I * DW * L 

DALYs attributable to a specific (occupational) risk factor or disease can be calculated by multiplying the disease specific DALYs of the country by the country's attributable fraction (AF) for the risk factor of interest. 

Economic costs

The EU-OSHA report the value of OSH (2019) used different approaches for calculating the societal costs of work-related injuries and diseases [11]. The bottom-up model uses data on the number of occupational accidents and diseases and estimates of the costs of each case. The cost estimates include direct costs, indirect costs and intangible costs and are based on extensive data sources such as healthcare costs, market output losses due to absenteeism and insurance administration costs. The top down model uses an approach that attributes a monetary value to DALYs. The result of each of the approaches is a monetary value (€) which can be expressed as a % of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury

The WHO has been the forerunner in studies concerning the global burden of disease. The World Bank commissioned the first Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study in 1993 and the study quantified the health effects of more than 100 diseases and injuries for eight regions of the world in 1990 [12]. Since then, the WHO has steadily improved the methodologies and metrics and also widened the scope to include more diseases and countries. The Global Burden of Disease study 2019 provides estimates of incidence, prevalence, mortality, YLLs, YLDs, and DALYs due to 369 diseases and injuries, for two sexes, and for 204 countries [13]. All data and publications can be accessed on the website of the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation[14].

Within the GBD, health risks are classified into categories including occupational risks which allows analysing the contribution of occupational risks to the global burden of disease. In one of the first studies on the work-related burden of diseases, Fingerhut et al. (2005) concluded that five occupational risk factors accounted for an estimated 37% of back pain, 16% of hearing loss, 13% of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 11% of asthma, 9% of lung cancer, 8% of injuries, and 2% of leukemia worldwide and that almost all cases of silicosis, asbestosis, and coal workers’ pneumoconiosis were work-related [15]. Another early study by Driscoll et al. (2005) evaluated the global burden of occupational diseases due to occupational carcinogens [16]. The estimates on the work-related burden of disease are produced within the framework of the global Comparative Risk Assessment in which exposure to a specific occupational risk factor is linked to the specific attributable burden of one specific health outcome [17].

Not only the WHO but also the ILO has been compiling and analysing data from various sources since the late 1990s to produce Global Estimates of Occupational Injuries and Diseases. Examples of such estimates are available in the study of Takala et al. (2009) [18]and in the ILO report for the World Congress on Safety and Health at Work in 2014 [19]. The ILO estimates have been based on two distinct processes, one for occupational injuries and the other on work-related diseases. The estimates for occupational injuries rely on reliable statistics from representative groups of countries that are used as 'proxy' countries to cover missing data. The estimates on work-related diseases are made by combining data on attributable fractions with WHO mortality tables [20][21].   

Since the ILO and WHO used different methods, their studies yielded different results [22]. In 2016 both agencies made an agreement to develop a joint estimation methodology and produce a comprehensive set of estimates of work-related burden of disease: the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury (WHO/ILO Joint Estimates). The WHO/ILO Joint Estimates have been produced for 41 pairs of occupational risk factors and health outcomes. Examples of such pairs are Occupational exposure to benzene and Leukaemia and Occupational ergonomic factors and Back and neck pain. Several risk factors are linked with more than one health outcome, e.g. Occupational exposure to asbestos is paired to Larynx cancer but also to Mesothelioma. The estimates are produced within the comparative risk framework [17]. Combining information on prevalence of exposure to a defined risk factor with information about the increased risk of the incidence of mortality from a defined health outcome among people exposed to the risk factor, allows the calculation of the population attributable fraction (PAF) for this pair of risk factor/health outcome [17]. Based on the PAFs estimates are made of the numbers of deaths and DALYs for each health outcome attributable to its respective occupational risk factor. All estimates are available for the years 2000, 2010 and 2016, reported at country, regional and global levels, and are fully disaggregated by sex and age group[23]. The results show that, globally in 2016, risk factors at the workplace caused the loss of 90 million (DALYs) and the deaths of 1.9 million people. Figure 1 depicts the contribution in percentage of each of the occupational risk factors to the total number of work-related deaths (inner circle) and DALYs (outer circle). The figure shows that the occupational risk factor with the largest number of attributable deaths is exposure to long working hours [20]. More details on the data and on the pairs of risk factor/health outcome are available in the Global Monitoring report jointly published by the WHO and ILO [23]. Infographics and a data visualisation tool can be accessed on the WHO website [24].

Figure 1 – Proportions of total attributable deaths and DALYs by occupational risk factor (183 countries, 2016)

graph

Source [23]

Economic costs

The EU-OSHA website provides a data visualisation tool on the value of OSH to society [25]. The tool highlights the key findings of a project carried out by the ILO, the Finnish Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, the Workplace Safety and Health Institute in Singapore, the International Commission on Occupational Health and EU-OSHA. The project aimed at developing worldwide estimates of the costs of work-related injuries and illnesses, covering all world regions and offering more specific data at EU member state level. The costs to society are shown in monetary terms and as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In addition at EU-level the distribution of DALYs amongst the main work-related causes is provided (cancer, circulatory illnesses, musculoskeletal disorders and injuries) [26].

The results (2017) show that work-related injuries and illnesses lead to the loss of 3.9% of all work-years worldwide and 3.3% in the EU. This loss of working years corresponds to a global cost of about 2.680 billion and 476 billion for the EU. In total, 123.3 million DALYs are lost globally due to work-related injuries and illnesses of which 67.8 million are lost due to fatal injury or illness and 55.5 million are lived with disability. In the EU, 7.1 million DALYs are lost of which 3.7 million are due to fatal injury or illness and 3.4 million are lived with disability [25].

Gender differences

The burden of work-related disease and injury differs between genders. According to the WHO/ILO Global monitoring report [23] the death rate per 100 000 working-age males was 51.4 while for women it was 17.2 (per 100 000 working-age women). Similarly, the DALY rate per 100 000 working-age males was 2361.1 compared with the DALY rate 911.2 per 100 000 working age females [23]. These differences are mainly related to differences in the labour market and the different occupations traditionally held by men and women. Men tend to work in high-risk occupations such as those in industry, mining and construction. Women work more often in health and education, real estate, hotels and restaurants, and other service sectors, such as cleaning [27].

Findings of studies on gender differences in occupational hazard exposures [28]show that men are exposed to noise, vibration, medical radiation, physically demanding work, UV radiation, falls, biomechanical risks and chemical hazards while women are exposed to wet work, bullying and discrimination, work stress, and biological agents. Even when men and women work in the same occupations, there are differences. Men are more likely to be exposed to physical hazards, except for women in health care occupations and exposure to prolonged standing. Women compared to men in the same occupations are more likely to experience harassment [27]. Women workers are also more frequently exposed to MSD-related physical risks including lifting, handling or moving persons,repetitive movements at work, awkward postures and prolonged static standing or sitting, all of which are often directly related to the prevalence of MSDs [26].

Use of burden of disease studies

The burden of disease studies provide key information to guide policies and prevention strategies. Risk prevention and management activities in companies and in society should be directed more towards long term limiting illnesses and diseases, which would reduce considerably disability adjusted life years. For example, the prevention of lung cancer and other cancers is important. About 40% of cancer cases in the EU are preventable [29]. Reducing exposure to work-related carcinogens remains a priority both in the "Europe beats cancer" plan [29] and in the EU Strategic Framework on Health and Safety at Work 2021-2027 [30]. Workplace prevention strategies and measures have been set out in the Directive 2004/37/EC of 29 April 2004 on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens, mutagens or reprotoxic substances at work (reprotoxic substances were added to the scope of the directive by in 2022) [31]. The Directive has undergone major updates from 2017 onwards by introducing binding occupational exposure levels (OELs) for more than 40 known carcinogens. Several impact studies have accompanied these amendments and have made use of burden of disease data to demonstrate the benefits of reducing exposures at work. Examples are the studies on trichloroethylene and other substances [32], on inorganic arsenic compounds incl. arsenic acid and its salts [33] and on formaldehyde [34]. Specifically on asbestos-related risks, the EU Commission is taking steps towards an asbestos-free future including further reducing the health risks of workplace exposure to asbestos. In 2022 the Commission issued a proposal for amending Directive 2009/148/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to asbestos at work [35]. The proposal includes a reduction in the exposure limit of asbestos at work from 0.1 f/cm³ to 0.01 f/cm³. The study analysing different policy options in preparation for the proposal used data on the burden of asbestos-related diseases to make comparisons and socio-economic impact assessments [36].

However, it should be noted that burden of disease (BOD) studies to some extent mainly reflect the effects of occupational exposures in past decades [1]  and it remains therefore important to combine the results of BOD-studies with findings on emerging risks to support workplace policies. The work from EU-OSHA’s European Risk Observatory[37]and the European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks (ESENER)[38] provide key data to ensure safe and healthy workplaces in the future.

References

[1] Global and regional burden of disease and injury in 2016 arising from occupational exposures: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2020; 77(3), pp. 133-141. Available at: https://oem.bmj.com/content/77/3/133

[2] GBD 2016 Occupational Carcinogens Collaborators. Global and regional burden of cancer in 2016 arising from occupational exposure to selected carcinogens: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Occupational and environmental medicine, 2020; 77(3), pp. 151-159. Available at: https://oem.bmj.com/content/77/3/151

[3] Hessel, F. Burden of Disease. In: Kirch, W. (eds) Encyclopedia of Public Health. Springer, Dordrecht, 2008. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5614-7_297

[4] EU-OSHA. Work-related diseases. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/themes/work-related-diseases

[5] European Commission, European statistics on accidents at work (ESAW), Methodology, 2013 Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-manuals-and-guidelines/-/KS-RA-12-102

[6] WHO. The global health observatory. Indicator Metadata Registry List. Population attributable fraction. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/1287

[7] Levin, M.L., ‘The occurrence of lung cancer in man.’ Acta Unio Internationalis Contra Cancrum, No 9, 1953, pp. 531-41

[8] Counil E. Contribution of causal factors to disease burden: how to interpret attributable fractions. Breathe (Sheff). 2021 Dec;17(4):210086. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8753648/

[9] WHO/ILO joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016. Data Visualisation. Available at: https://who-ilo-joint-estimates.shinyapps.io/OccupationalBurdenOfDisease/

[10] EU-OSHA. The economics of occupational safety and health – the value of OSH to society. Data Visualisation tool, Glossary. Available at: https://visualisation.osha.europa.eu/osh-costs#!/glossary

[11] EU-OSHA. The value of occupational safety and health and the societal costs of work-related injuries and diseases. Report, 2019. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/value-occupational-safety-and-health-and-societal-costs-work-related-injuries-and

[12] WHO. WHO methods and data sources for global burden of disease estimates 2000-2019. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/global-health-estimates

[13] Vos, T., Lim, S. S., Abbafati, C., Abbas, K. M., Abbasi, M., Abbasifard, M., ... & Bhutta, Z. A. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 2020, 396(10258), pp. 1204-1222. Available at: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30925-9/fulltext

[14] Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Available at: https://www.healthdata.org/gbd/2019

[15] Fingerhut, M., Driscoll, T., Nelson, D. I., Concha-Barrientos, M., Punnett, L., Pruss-Ustin, A., Steenland, K., Leigh, J., Corvalan, C. Contribution of occupational risk factors to the global burden of disease–a summary of findings. Scand J Work Environ Health, 2005, 1(Suppl), pp. 59-61. Available at: https://www.sjweh.fi/article/939

[16] Driscoll, T., Nelson, D.I., Steenland, K., Leigh, J., Concha-Barrientos, M., Fingerhut, M., Prüss-Ustün, A., ‘The global burden of disease due to occupational carcinogens’, Am J Ind Med, Vol 48:6, 2005; pp. 419-31.

[17] WHO/ILO joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016: technical report with data sources and methods: Geneva: World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization, 2021. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345241

[18] Takala, J., Urrutia, M., Hämäläinen, P. & Saarela, K.L., ‘The global and European work environment – numbers, trends, and strategies.’ Scand J Work Environ Health, Vol. 7, 2009, pp. 15-23. https://www.sjweh.fi/article/2868

[19] ILO, Safety and Health at Work: a Vision for Sustainable Prevention, 2014. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_protect/@protrav/@safework/documents/publication/wcms_301214.pdf

[20] (18) EU-OSHA. The economics of occupational safety and health – the value of OSH to society. About the estimates. Available at: https://visualisation.osha.europa.eu/osh-costs#!/about-estimates

[21] Takala, J., Hämäläinen, P., Saarela, K. L., Yun, L. Y., Manickam, K., Jin, T. W., ... & Lin, G. S. (2014). Global estimates of the burden of injury and illness at work in 2012. Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene, 11(5), pp. 326-337. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15459624.2013.863131

[22] Pega, F., Hamzaoui, H., Náfrádi, B., & Momen, N. C. Global, regional and national burden of disease attributable to 19 selected occupational risk factors for 183 countries, 2000–2016: A systematic analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health, 2022, 48(2), 158. Available at: https://www.sjweh.fi/article/4001

[23] WHO/ILO joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016: global monitoring report: Geneva: World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization, 2021. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345242

[24] WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. Available at: https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/monitoring/who-ilo-joint-estimates

[25] EU-OSHA. The economics of occupational safety and health – the value of OSH to society. Data visualisation tool. Available at: https://visualisation.osha.europa.eu/osh-costs#!/

[26] EU-OSHA. The economics of occupational safety and health – the value of OSH to society. Introduction. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/facts-and-figures/data-visualisation/economics-occupational-safety-and-health-value-osh-society

[27] EU-OSHA. Preventing musculoskeletal disorders in a diverse workforce: risk factors for women, migrants and LGBTI workers. Report, 2020. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/preventing-musculoskeletal-disorders-diverse-workforce-risk-factors-women-migrants-and

[28] Biswas, A., Harbin, S., Irvin, E. et al. Sex and Gender Differences in Occupational Hazard Exposures: a Scoping Review of the Recent Literature. Current Environmental Health Reports volume 8, 2021, pp. 267–280. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34839446/

[29] Europe's Beating Cancer Plan. Communication from the commission to the European Parliament and the Council, 2021. Available at: https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-02/eu_cancer-plan_en_0.pdf

[30] EU Strategic Framework on Health and Safety at Work 2021-2027. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/safety-and-health-legislation/eu-strategic-framework-health-and-safety-work-2021-2027

[31] Directive 2004/37/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/legislation/directive/directive-200437ec-carcinogens-or-mutagens-work

[32] European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Hanlon, J., Vencovska, J., Maj, M., et al., Second study to collect updated information for a limited number of chemical agents with a view to analyse the health, socio-economic and environmental impacts in connection with possible amendments of Directive 2004/37/EC: final report, Publications Office, 2019, Available at: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/784500

[33] European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Kalberlah, F., Lassen, C., Vencovsky, D., et al., Third study on collecting most recent information for a certain number of substances with the view to analyse the health, socio-economic and environmental impacts in connection with possible amendments of Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work : inorganic arsenic compounds incl. arsenic acid and its salts : final report, Publications Office, 2019. Available at:  https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/321020

[34] European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Vencovska, J., Hanlon, J., Fleet, D., et al., Third study on collecting most recent information for a certain number of substances with the view to analyse the health, socio-economic and environmental impacts in connection with possible amendments of Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work : formaldehyde, Publications Office, 2019. Available at: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/437917

[35] Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2009/148/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to asbestos at work. COM/2022/489 final. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0489&qid=1665053901844

[36] European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Lassen, C., Christens, F., Vencovska, J., et al., Study on collecting information on substances with the view to analyse health, socio-economic and environmental impacts in connection with possible amendments of Directive 98/24/EC (Chemical Agents) and Directive 2009/148/EC (Asbestos) : final report for asbestos, Publications Office, 2021, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/981554

[37] EU-OSHA. Emerging risks. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/emerging-risks

[38] EU-OSHA. European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks (ESENER). Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/facts-and-figures/esener

Further reading

EU-OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, The economics of occupational safety and health – the value of OSH to society. Data visualisation tool. Available at: https://visualisation.osha.europa.eu/osh-costs#!/

EU-OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, The value of occupational safety and health and the societal costs of work-related injuries and diseases. Report, 2019. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/value-occupational-safety-and-health-and-societal-costs-work-related-injuries-and

EU-OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Estimating the cost of work-related accidents and ill-health: An analysis of European data sources. Report, 2017. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/estimating-cost-work-related-accidents-and-ill-health-analysis-european-data-sources

EU-OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, The business case for safety and health: Cost–benefit analyses of interventions in small and medium-sized enterprises. Available at: https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/business-case-safety-and-health-cost-benefit-analyses-interventions-small-and-medium

WHO/ILO joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016: global monitoring report: Geneva: World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization, 2021. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345242

WHO – World Health Organization. Questions and Answers on the Total WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury, 2000–2016. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/total-who-ilo-joint-estimates-of-the-work-related-burden-of-disease-and-injury--2000-2016/

WHO/ILO joint estimates of the work-related burden of disease and injury, 2000-2016. Data Visualisation. Available at: https://who-ilo-joint-estimates.shinyapps.io/OccupationalBurdenOfDisease/

Select theme

Contributor

Karla Van den Broek

Prevent, Belgium
Klaus Kuhl

Eero Priha