Introduction
Construction is one of the most dangerous sectors in which to work, with a high number of accidents and cases of ill health[1] [2]. Research shows that psychosocial factors inherent in the design[3], organisation and management of work are contributory factors to work-related accidents and ill health. This article outlines and discusses some of the key psychosocial issues and work characteristics that may lead to the experience of stress amongst construction workers and the associated health and safety problems that could occur.
Why focus on construction?
The construction sector is an important part of the EU economy. Nearly 7% of the EU workforce is employed in the sector[4] and employment is expected to increase over the next decades due to the green transition[5]. Moreover, EU data shows that the sector accounts for about 18 million jobs in total and for about 9% of the EU's gross domestic product[2]. But while construction is an important economic sector in terms of employment and productivity, it is also a high-risk sector. Workers are exposed to risks at work through the use of heavy machinery, working at height, exposure to harmful substances, noise, lifting heavy loads, etc[2]. As a result, the sector has a relatively high number of occupational accidents compared to other sectors. The European Statistics on accidents at work (ESAW) show that in 2022 there were on average 2.955,46 non-fatal accidents per 100,000 persons employed in the construction sector in the European Union. This is the highest figure of all sectors and also noticeably higher than the overall average of 1506,55[6].
Key psychosocial issues in construction
Although the exposure to psychosocial risks is lower than average in the construction sector[7], there is a wide range of work characteristics (or ‘stressors’) that could potentially cause stress among construction workers. When exposed to multiple psychosocial risks over a prolonged time, workers are prone to experience stress, anxiety, and physical and mental fatigue. Concentration, distraction and risk-taking behaviours are induced by psychosocial risks and have an impact on mental and physical health[2]. Turnover intentions as well as reduced productivity can be possible consequences for the company.
Psychosocial hazards that emerged from literature reviews[1] [2] [8] [9] [10] on stress in the construction industry are summarised in the sections below in an exemplary way, capturing the most typical issues described in the literature that can be perceived as stressful by construction workers.
Job characteristics
Economic and performance factors appear to be the most stressful to construction workers, significantly increasing the risk of them developing ill-health, such as the onset of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)[1].
This aspect was also mentioned by several stakeholders who were interviewed within the EU-OSHA Mental Health in Construction Project[2]. They highlighted that working under pressure and tight deadlines had a significant impact on mental health in the sector. Whilst not only a sector-specific issue, it is important to acknowledge that many construction workers experience excessive pressure from clients to meet deadlines[8] [9]. At the same time, it is important for construction companies to meet these deadlines to stand a chance of securing future work with the same client, particularly those subcontracted to perform specialist tasks in projects.
Related potential sources of work pressures for construction workers include trying to achieve job goals/expectations in response to constant initiatives to improve productivity (e.g. shorter deadlines, short-term contracts and penalties for a drop in production). This leads to an increased workload, high work intensity and work pace as well as irregular work shifts, longer working hours and poor work-life balance[2]. These findings appear consistent across different trades within the sector[10].
Construction work sites are complex and dynamic, and require workers to adapt to different weather conditions, materials, work methods, hazards, poor working conditions, including working in dirty/dusty/noisy environments, etc. and lack of basic amenities such as rest and toilet facilities [1] [2] [10].
Weather conditions is a specific factor to consider when looking at how the physical work environment may affect construction workers psychologically. For example, sites often shut down or stop work when weather is bad[11]. Being unable to work in poor weather conditions can be stressful when trying to meet tight deadlines and may also mean that workers receive no pay, or reduced pay, if work stops because of bad weather.
Moreover, construction work can involve frequent travel, the need to commute and sometimes long journeys to different work locations, putting further pressure on work-life balance.
Role in the organisation
The construction sector is characterised by high turnover rates and diverse teams, often made up of people on fixed-term contracts or hired through subcontractors and temporary employment agencies. This fluid workforce structure can lead to role ambiguity and workplace conflict. Frequent project changes - whether within the same site or between sites - add to these challenges, making it difficult for workers to rely on roles and responsibilities[2].
Even in large construction firms, the transition from one work site to another with different site managers can be detrimental to worker morale[10]. For example, morale can be affected when employers do not consult construction workers about upcoming changes to their work. Sudden changes without much notice may result in workers feeling less optimistic and assured about their work.
Another major concern is the under-utilisation of skills. Despite possessing a wide range of skills, many construction workers find themselves confined to repetitive tasks. This lack of job variety can lead to frustration and job dissatisfaction[12]. Conversely, the increasing digitalisation of construction processes presents a different challenge - workers who lack the necessary digital skills may experience reduced job autonomy, further exacerbating workplace stress[2].
Social aspects
The constantly changing workforce in the construction sector with workers moving from one project to another[10] can make it also difficult to establish trust within teams, and between a team and the main contractor. Furthermore, where teams comprise both directly employed and contracted staff, team cohesiveness may be difficult to establish[1]. Communication barriers, both verbal (e.g. language differences) and structural (e.g. dispersed coordination, shifting teams and changing sites), can exacerbate these problems. Poor communication can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts and can hinder efficient teamwork. Workplace cultures that lack openness, empathy and participative decision-making, coupled with unexpected changes in project decisions, can also reduce workers' sense of autonomy and increase stress levels[2].
Working in a team where everyone shares the same values may help to buffer the negative effects of strain (e.g. through social support mechanisms); yet it seems that common values and a feeling of team cohesion are rarely established in construction sites. Therefore, managing the social aspects of teamwork represents a particular challenge for site supervisors.
Job insecurity
Job insecurity is a common psychosocial issue reported in the construction sector, which has been found to negatively impact a worker’s health and well-being. Job insecurity is a constant stressor for construction workers on a fixed-term contract, given the uncertainty over being able to secure subsequent work when their contracts end. Once the whole job, or a worker’s small part of a larger job, is finished they must find work on a new project/site with a similar salary often with a new employer. Consequently, many construction workers are faced with periods of unemployment and uncertainty about job continuity and future income[10] [2]. Not having a steady job and having to constantly worry about future employment appears to be directly related to physical and psychological symptoms (feeling tense, angry or sad over the past year)[12]. Workers with low socioeconomic status (more common among the low-skilled, and the self-employed) may be more exposed to the risks of job insecurity[2].
Stigma
Studies have shown that construction workers regard admitting that they have stress as a major sign of weakness[9]. This culture can pose mental health risks due to stigmatised attitudes towards mental health issues and help-seeking behaviour, and the acceptance of harmful coping mechanisms such as substance misuse[2]. Overall, the ESENER results show that the construction sector is less sensitive to mental health issues than other economic sectors, with 71% of construction companies reluctant to discuss psychosocial issues openly. This suggests that mental health is still a taboo subject in the sector and highlights the need to create an open organisational culture[2].
Safety-specific leadership
Safety-specific leadership is crucial in any sector, not only construction. The lack of safety-specific leadership can be considered a psychosocial work stressor for several reasons. Firstly, poor safety-specific leadership contributes to a culture that is unconcerned with worker safety and well-being. Secondly, poor safety leadership is likely to be associated with little support for workers to help them cope with psychosocial risks. Finally, workers who perceive poor safety leadership may also feel that they are under pressure to disregard formal policies and procedures designed to protect their safety and well-being[13].
Promoting greater autonomy by enabling workers to make decisions about how they respond to demands encountered in the course of their work can make work demands more manageable and promote wellbeing[14]. This approach seems suitable for construction workers given the tendency to work in small teams to complete jobs[12].
Climate change and digitalisation
The EU-OSHA report on mental health in the construction sector[2] highlights that digitalisation presents both opportunities and challenges in the sector. While it can enhance efficiency and worker safety, it is also linked to increased stress, MSDs, digital fatigue, burnout, and "technostress". The growing reliance on smart technologies, particularly mobile ICT devices, can blur work-life boundaries, extend working hours, and heighten workplace surveillance. From an organisational-level perspective, the increasing use of mobile-ICT technologies at work could influence psychosocial risk factors associated with traditional task management, feelings of workplace isolation, job autonomy and a lack of work–life balance. However, stakeholder interviews[2] also highlighted the positive aspects of digitalisation, including improved site management, better working conditions and better protection of workers from hazardous environments, which ultimately benefits both physical and mental health.
The construction sector is particularly vulnerable to climate change, as identified in OSH-related literature[2]. The impact of rising temperatures is becoming increasingly evident, particularly in Southern Europe, where extreme heatwaves are more frequent. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures has been linked to heat stroke, increased fatalities, and a range of psychological and physiological effects, including anxiety, depression, physical fatigue, impaired judgment, hallucinations, and reduced mental coordination[2]. At the same time, adapting to climate-related changes can lead to eco-anxiety among workers[15].
Sociodemographic aspects
The construction sector is characterised by a higher portion of migrant workers. Data from 2022 show that non-EU nationals were over-represented in employment rates for construction occupations, particularly in building and related trades. 9.1% of all workers in construction are non-EU nationals, compared with 5.7% for all sectors[16]. Migrant workers may face additional barriers to understanding and complying with OSH requirements (e.g. not speaking the language) and may experience increased challenges in terms of social relations, organisational dynamics and cultural factors that affect both their work and their wellbeing[2].
Consequences of psychosocial risk exposure in the construction sector
The EU-OSHA report on mental health in the construction sector summarises the consequences of psychosocial risks in the sector as mainly the following[2]: Psychosocial risks most often lead to stress, which in turn contributes to uncertainty, burnout, anxiety, fatigue, and sleep problems. Women seem to be disproportionately more affected due to gender-based discrimination, experiencing heightened anxiety, insomnia, and marginalisation[17]. Burnout is particularly common among skilled professionals and office-based staff in the sector[18]. Other less frequent impacts include irritability, low self-confidence, loneliness, poor concentration, and increased risk-taking.
The report further highlights higher suicide occurrence rates among male construction workers compared to the general population, with most evidence coming from the Anglo-Saxon countries. Suicide is generally viewed as an additional adverse mental health outcome resulting from exposure to the traditional psychosocial risk factors mentioned above[19][20]. Research conducted in Europe reveals a significant gap in updated statistical data on suicide rates and suicidal ideation among construction workers in the EU. The literature additionally lacks a unanimous perspective on specific risk factors for suicide in this population, providing only some indications of potential causes related to suicidal behaviour.
Prevention strategies and practical solutions
Construction leaders and managers play an important role in putting strategies in place to prevent the range of work characteristics discussed above from having a negative impact on the health and well-being of construction workers. The EU-OSHA report[2] presents eight examples of good practices in different EU countries as well as summaries of recommendations published by EU social partners in construction and prevention institutions.
While attention has generally been given to health and safety management in construction, psychosocial issues do not seem to have been fully taken into account to date[1]. Taking measures to prevent the potential negative impact of psychosocial issues on worker health and well-being will not only benefit individual workers, but also the company. Benefits at company level include lower levels of sickness absence, reduced turnover, improved morale and performance[9].
Table 2 gives an overview of possible practical measures to improve psychosocial risk prevention and enhance mental health and wellbeing at work in the construction sector.
Table 2: Organisational-level strategies to reduce psychosocial risks in construction
| Policies and systems | - Systematic integration of psychosocial risks into OSH management on construction sites
- Development and implementation of clear policies on respectful communication and no tolerance towards adverse social behaviour. Include the workforce/worker representatives in the development and make sure everyone onsite is well briefed on the approach.
|
| Work organisation | - Effective organisational strategies including regular workload reviews for being able to adapt in time
- Measures such as job rotation, job enlargement
- Contingency measures for redistributing work or hiring extra workers in times of high time pressure
- Allowing workers to self-pace their workloads
- Systems that allow for working long hours during periods of high demand but then take time off when demands are less extensive
- Reduce commuting for workers by providing services (e.g. a bus service) to get workers to sites
|
| Workplace culture | - Promoting an open culture including an increased awareness, whereby workers are given the possibility and are willing to raise psychosocial issues to management and are encouraged to challenge any poor practice that they observe.
- Ensuring management treats all the concerns that are raised with regard to psychosocial issues seriously, addressing them as quickly as possible.
- Ensuring management lead by example by treating everyone fairly.
|
| Management training | - Management training to have the skills to understand and to talk openly about psychosocial aspects at work and their consequences on mental and physical health and well-being.
- Communication skills training that targets on-going site communication within teams, and between teams or workers – also covering those that are only in contact for short periods.
|
| Awareness raising | - Information and training of workers (including the supply chain’s workforce) on psychosocial issues, consequences and controls, e.g. through toolbox talks. Regular refresher training is important for transient workforces.
- Providing information to workers on how they can seek internal support in case of problems.
- Take into account vulnerable groups, language barriers, etc.
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| Communication | - Regular and open communication, regarding work organisation, planning, activities, changes, etc.
- Use of digital technologies to improve communication between construction sites and help solve some problems from a distance
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| Worker support measures | - After making sure that psychosocial risks are properly address at organisational level and there are clear policies in place with regard to socially adverse behaviour like violence and harassment it may also beneficial to provide possibilities of individual support to workers
- This support can take place in terms of free and anonymous counselling offers
- Measures to enhance peer support and information and training for workers with regard to suicide prevention and other topics can also be very beneficial[21]
|
Source[9] [1] [2]
Further suggestions on prevention strategies and policy pointers can be found in the EU-OSHA report Mental health in the construction sector: preventing and managing psychosocial risks in the workplace[2] .
Summary
There are a number of psychosocial issues prevalent in the construction sector that have an impact on workers’ health and wellbeing. Economic and performance factors appear to be the most stressful. It is important for construction management to be aware of the range of factors that have the potential to cause stress. Managers should consider strategies for assessing and reducing psychosocial risks. The literature and sector stakeholders strongly advocate for addressing organisational determinants of mental health, such as workload, time pressures, and interpersonal communication, rather than focusing on individual factors like substance misuse and relationship problems. This is because evidence shows that performative self-help tools do not effectively tackle the root causes of work-related stressors[2].
