Introduction
Researchers play a vital role in advancing society. However, their work environment often exposes them to significant psychosocial risks that affect their health and well-being. Effectively managing these risks requires the implementation of comprehensive workplace strategies at both organisational and individual levels. In accordance with the European Charter for Researchers[1], employers should provide a working environment that promotes the health and wellbeing of researchers.
This article focuses on researchers in academia and research institutes who spend most of their professional time conducting research. These two groups of researchers face similar professional challenges and working conditions. Other professionals who occasionally conduct research, such as doctors, laboratory technicians, teachers and consultants, are excluded in this article, because research is not their primary role.
Research work: definition and context
As stated in the European Commission's Communication on the European Skills Agenda, researchers are at the forefront of science and innovation. They require specific skills to enjoy successful careers in academia and beyond[2]. A researcher is a professional engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products, processes, methods and systems, as well as in the management of the projects concerned[3]. Researchers are dedicated to uncovering new knowledge in various fields, including science, technology, medicine, the social sciences and the humanities and work in a variety of settings, including academia, higher education institutions, research organisations, business enterprises, public administration bodies and the non-profit sector[4]. Their work includes designing and conducting studies, experiments or theoretical investigations, publishing research findings, networking, and coaching young researchers. Researchers may be involved in various activities, including basic or applied research, experimental development, operating research equipment, and disseminating and valorising research results. They may also be partially involved in project management, teaching, mentoring, supporting policy making, knowledge and technology transfer activities, and science communication[4].
Eurostat data[5] show a growing trend in the number of researchers. In 2023, there were 2.15 million researchers working in the Member States, compared to 1.48 million in 2013 (+ 45%). More than half (56.6%) of full-time equivalent researchers in the EU worked in business enterprises, 31.8% in higher education and 10.2% in the government sector in 2023.
Key psychosocial hazards
Although researchers often find their work intellectually stimulating — many describe it as a vocation rather than a job[6] — it is also highly demanding. These demands, while sometimes motivating, can lead to psychosocial risks when not properly managed. Psychosocial risks can be defined as “aspects of the design and management of work, and its social and organisational contexts, that have the potential for causing psychological or physical harm”[7].
Researchers are faced with a multitude of tasks and challenges. These include conducting research, publishing articles, attending conferences, running workshops, teaching and supervising students, applying for funding, and managing research projects and teams. They must also be aware of implicit bias, collaborate with industry partners, make their research more accessible and engage with the public[8]. These tasks create significant workloads, which must be considered alongside structural and cultural changes in the research landscape. Academic institutions have become increasingly performance-driven, emphasising research output, institutional reputation and international rankings[9] [10]. Emerging evidence suggests that this has resulted in university research environments characterised by job insecurity, conflicting demands of teaching and research duties, long working hours, intense peer competition and immense pressure to publish and secure funding[9]. Furthermore, there is an increasing trend towards precarious employment in academia, resulting in a loss of talent and reduced job security in many countries, a situation that has been exacerbated by the effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic[11]. This precarity stems from a lack of public research funding, short-term project-based research work and a shortage of research positions, which together create an extremely competitive environment[12]. In an online survey[6] most researchers reported that they are concerned about the future sustainability of the research culture, describing it as competitive and pressurised. While competition can promote excellence, over-competition and under-resourcing threaten researcher well-being, reduce diversity, and harm the long-term sustainability of the research workforce.
Most studies on researchers' working conditions, job demands and psychosocial risks focus on the academic research environment. A study in the UK[10] found that academic work is associated with a high exposure to psychosocial risks. The studied measured seven key hazards: demands, control, support from managers and colleagues, relationships, role and change management. Data from three waves of a national survey of academic staff (2008, 2012 and 2014) were compared with HSE benchmarks from the UK working population. The results showed that none of the benchmarks were met, except for job control. The risks associated with demands, lack of manager and peer support, role conflict and change were particularly high. Furthermore, an increase in most psychosocial risks was observed over time, particularly with regard to job demands, control, role conflict, and relationships[10].
According to the job demands-resources theory[13], high job demands can lead to mental health issues, but these adverse effects can be mitigated by job resources. A study based on a dataset of 4,563 academic researchers in the UK indicate that job resources are positively associated with mental health, while caring responsibility and loneliness negatively impact mental health[14]. Loneliness or the perception of isolation and a lack of good quality interpersonal relationships, has been associated with poorer physical and mental health among researchers[15][16]. Such feelings of isolation may stem from the solitary nature of much research work, increased internal competition and reward structures that prevent a sense of community, and a lack of good supervision, as well as a lack of social or peer networks[6][16][9]. Groups particularly at risk of isolation include female researchers, researchers from black ethnic backgrounds, and part-time or international doctoral researchers[9].
Review studies on mental health and university academics[17] [18][16][19] identified several psychosocial hazards. High workload is mostly cited as the main factor affecting mental health among academics. Other factors include job insecurity, lack of organisational support, inadequate resources and administrative burden. The table below summarises the main psychosocial hazards.
It seems that high workload and long working hours are common practice among researchers. According to the OECD International Survey of Scientific Authors (ISSA), the average working week for 78% of scientific authors exceeds 40 hours, with nearly one in five working over 55 hours per week[20]. Similar results emerged from a study[21] within the LHC community[i], showing that almost 70% of the 400 respondents said they worked more than 40 hours per week. Of these, 46.4% worked between 41 and 50 hours, and 22% worked more than 50 hours. Working long hours, including evenings and weekends, seems to be part of the job to meet the demands of research work and grant writing, often combined with lecturing and supporting students[22]. Researchers who participated in the online survey mentioned above[6] indicated that a high workload and long working hours are part of the research culture, but that the impact on well-being increases as job demands and competition intensify, particularly when combined with concerns about job insecurity[6]. Almost half of the survey respondents who had left the research community (45%) reported that the difficulty of finding a job and facing an insecure career path were reasons for their departure. Early- and mid-career researchers were significantly less likely to feel secure than senior researchers, suggesting a general trend whereby job insecurity decreases with seniority. Job insecurity is closely linked to changes that have occurred in the research environment over the last few decades, particularly since the 2008 financial crisis, with a shift from core funding of research organisations to funding allocated via competitive mechanisms[20]. This trend has an impact on research careers with an increase in the number of researchers who are not in a standard employment relationship[20]. Female researchers are even more vulnerable. Across the EU, data[4] show that a higher proportion of female researchers work part-time or on precarious contracts in academia (11%) compared to male researchers (7%). Furthermore, women occupy only 26% of the top academic positions, such as full professorship or equivalent research positions[4].
Table: Key psychosocial hazards
| Job insecurity | short-term contracts, funding instability, career prospects |
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| Performance pressure | publication pressure, competition, metrics-driven evaluation (benchmarking), pressure to obtain research funding, maintaining a reputation, high expectations |
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| High workload | balancing research, teaching, grant applications, and administrative duties; administrative burden, complying with quality assurance procedures |
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| Long working hours | working extended hours, meeting deadlines |
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| Role ambiguity | taking on multiple roles, working in multiple research projects |
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| Limited job autonomy | limited control over work tasks, working time, working arrangements, especially early-career researchers |
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| Poor work-life balance | blurred boundaries between personal and professional life, working beyond standard hours, weekends, evenings; struggling to combine a job with caring for young children or ageing or ill parents. |
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| Lack of support | isolation, insufficient support from managers and colleagues, poor leadership and management, communication difficulties, lack of involvement in decision-making |
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| Lack of recognition | lack of recognition and reward, limited career development opportunities |
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| Poor working relationships | conflicts at work |
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Source: compiled by the author based on[23][9][16][17][18][19]
Impact on health and organisations
The combined effect of these psychosocial hazards can significantly impact individual researchers and their institutions. Research has shown that an imbalance between high job demands (e.g. a high workload) and insufficient job resources (e.g. a lack of support) is associated with various health aspects, such as exhaustion and presenteeism[24], depression and anxiety disorders[25], burnout[26] and other stress-related mental disorders[27] as well as musculoskeletal disorders[28] and cardiovascular diseases[29][30].
Several studies have examined the prevalence of work-related mental health problems among researchers. However, most of these studies do not clarify how mental health is defined, nor how researchers differ from other occupational groups[31]. The existing literature primarily focuses on self-reported symptoms rather than clinically diagnosed mental health conditions and frequently includes researchers alongside other university staff. However, when specific subgroups are studied, particularly early-career researchers, the findings consistently indicate high levels of psychological distress[31].
Survey data show that a majority of university staff consider their jobs stressful, with researchers frequently reporting high levels of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression. Levels of burnout appear higher among university staff than in the general working population and are comparable to 'high-risk' groups, such as healthcare workers[31]. Self-reported prevalence of common mental health conditions among academics ranges from 32% to 42%, significantly higher than the 19% estimated for the general working population[32]. The following are some findings from studies on the prevalence of mental health problems among researchers:
- a systematic review[33] of the existing scientific literature on the prevalence of burnout in university professors in the time period 2005–2020 show the presence of high levels of burnout in a sample of 2,841 university professors.
- an online, cross-sectional survey[34] among early and mid-career academics in two Australian universities found that one out of two respondents (n=284) reported work-related burn-out. Clinically significant symptoms of depression (28.0%), anxiety (21.7%) and suicidal ideation or self-harm (13.6%) were also reported[34].
- an international cross-sectional study[35] involving 207 mental health researchers found that more than half of them had experienced mental ill health at some point in their lives, which is a higher proportion than approximately 18% to 36% reported in previous studies in the general population.
- a study within the LHC community[21] showed that 56.2% are facing mental health challenges on a daily or monthly basis. The symptoms related to poor mental health, which were reported by the participants, range from mild to very severe, such as increased heartbeat or feeling that life is meaningless.
More data on the prevalence of mental health problems among researchers are available in systematic reviews e.g.[19][17][9].
Studies also indicate that people working in academic institutions report higher rates of bullying, harassment and discrimination than the general working population[36]. However, the prevalence rates are only comparable to a limited extent because the respondent groups, organisational and national contexts, and study methodologies vary greatly between individual studies. For example, a comprehensive literature review found that the prevalence rates of faculty bullying, as measured by self-labelling, ranged from 6.2% in a Norwegian study to 37.7% in a US study. Vulnerable groups such as women, people of colour, LGBTQI+ individuals, and foreign researchers report higher rates of intimidation. A study in a major German research organisation[36], showed that bullying vulnerability was highest among women and foreign researchers, especially at the doctoral level. Nicholls et al.[9] describe how female researchers and researchers from black ethnic backgrounds are often under-represented at senior levels in academia, which can lead to feelings of inequality and experiences of harassment, bias or discrimination. Data from an online survey organised by the Wellcome Foundation[6] among over 4,000 researchers, 76% of whom were based in the UK, indicates that 43% of the respondents had experienced bullying or harassment, while 61% had witnessed it. Disabled respondents (62%) and women (49%) were more likely to report having experienced bullying or harassment.
Early-career researchers face the highest levels of psychological distress. A survey of over 1,000 PhD students found that 50–60% were experiencing a common psychological disorder, and nearly 19% reported passive suicidal ideation[37]. A study[38] of 676 postdoctoral researchers at Dutch universities examined how their working conditions affected their mental health and wellbeing. The study suggests that 56% of postdoctoral researchers experienced psychological distress. A UK survey of postgraduate researchers[39] found higher prevalence rates of mental ill health among respondents (n = 479) than in the general population. 40.7% of postgraduate researchers reported moderate or severe anxiety symptoms, and 40.5% reported moderate or severe depression symptoms. 20% reported severe anxiety, while 22.3% reported severe or moderately severe depression[39]. A 2019 study published in Nature[40] examined 6,300 PhD candidates worldwide and found that 36% had sought help for anxiety or depression related to their PhD studies. Taken together, these studies confirm that mental health problems are widespread among early-career researchers and are not limited to specific countries or contexts[41]. Explanations for the higher prevalence level of mental health problems among early-career researchers include difficulties in the supervisory relationship[42] [43], poor work-life balance[37] , high workload[42], financial strains[8] [42] and job insecurity[35] [8].
The effects of these psychosocial risks extend beyond individual health. Poor mental well-being in researchers has serious implications for research institutions. Organisational outcomes include[31][18][44]:
- reduced productivity arising not only from absenteeism, but also from presenteeism, whereby researchers are present at work but less productive.
- lower organisational commitment leading to negative attitudes in the workplace and increased conflict, which undermines team cohesion and research quality.
- higher levels of staff turnover resulting in a reduction in the attractiveness of research career pathways, as well as a loss of talent to other sectors.
EU policy context and network actions
The European Union is focusing on making research careers more attractive and sustainable as part of the strategy to strengthen the European Research Area (ERA)[11]. The European Union adopted the Council Recommendation entitled 'European Framework to Attract and Retain Research, Innovation and Entrepreneurial Talents in Europe' in December 2023[4] which consists of 44 recommendations aimed primarily at Member States to make research careers more attractive, sustainable, and rewarding[45]. It covers issues such as improved recruitment and working conditions, fair career development and progression, and measures to support researcher mobility in a way that promotes exchange and collaboration rather than one-sided brain drain, ensuring mutual benefits across regions and institutions. The Council Recommendation also includes an updated European Charter for Researchers, replacing the original 2005 Charter and Code for Researchers. The new charter outlines the general principles and requirements that specify the roles, responsibilities and entitlements of researchers, as well as those of their employers and/or funders. The Council recommends that Member States and the Commission encourage research employers and funding organisations to endorse and implement the new Charter for Researchers[4]. Employers and organisations that have endorsed the European Charter for Researchers and are committed to implementing its principles, may be awarded the HR Excellence in Research award. The HR Excellence in Research Dashboard[46] gives an overview of all awarded organisations.
To support Member States in implementing the actions set out in the Council Recommendation, a Mutual Learning Exercise (MLE) has been organised between June 2024 and May 2025. This collaborative initiative brought together experts, policymakers, and stakeholders from 16 Member States. The purpose of the MLE is to facilitate the exchange of information, experiences, and lessons learned, and to identify good practices, policies, and programmes. As a result, four thematic reports and a final report containing eight recommendations for Member States on how to improve research careers have been published. More information and all reports are available on the website of DG Research and Innovation[47].
Besides these initiatives aimed at enhancing the attractiveness of careers in research, there is also a specific European network focused on the mental health of researchers: ReMO COST Action. ReMO refers to Researcher Mental Health Observatory and COST to European Cooperation in Science and Technology, a funding agency for research and innovation networks[48]. The ReMO COST Action comprises around 300 members from 39 European countries. It aims to improve the mental well-being of researchers, measure the impact of mental health problems on the academic workforce and encourage the sharing of evidence-based practices within the research community[49]. In 2021, the ReMO community published the Researcher Mental Health and Well-being Manifesto[32], which advocates for actions at the macro, meso and micro levels in order to nurture a healthy, supportive and respectful work environment. The Manifesto focuses on key challenges such as removing the stigma surrounding mental health problems and addressing precarious job conditions[49].
Workplace prevention strategies
Good practice shows that comprehensive approaches are most effective in addressing psychosocial risks and mental health issues in the workplace[50]. A policy that sets out a comprehensive approach to psychosocial risk prevention describes the workplace's vision for the procedures and practices that will be used to prevent mental health problems. The key elements of this approach are psychosocial risk assessments, appropriate prevention measures, and supporting workers at risk, as well as those with existing mental health problems, to help them stay in or return to work after periods of absence[50].
Legally, all employers have a general duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect of their work as highlighted in the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Framework Directive 89/391/EEC[51] and other regulatory standards. This includes risks related to psychosocial aspects of work. The OSH Framework Directive sets out the main components of OSH management, including the principle of risk assessment, the implementation of appropriate measures to eliminate risks at source, the documentation of workplace risks, and the periodic reassessment of these risks, as well as worker participation. Involving research staff in the planning and implementation of mental health strategies can improve acceptability and success, as well as fostering a sense of ownership.
Approaches and measures to address psychosocial risk factors and prevent mental health problems include primary, secondary and tertiary interventions[31] [52], which can be implemented at organisational and individual levels. Primary interventions focus at preventing mental health problems before they occur by eliminating or reducing the psychosocial risks, e.g. workload adjustment.
Secondary interventions aim to reduce the impact of factors that cause poor well-being and manage problems when the first signs of adverse effects appear (thus preventing exacerbation). These interventions are intended to help workers cope with the work environment, for example by identifying training or development needs[31]. Tertiary interventions include supportive actions after harm is done and aim to support stressed workers or those with health issues[31].
Primary interventions are considered the most effective, as they address the underlying causes of psychosocial risks. However, some of these measures can be challenging to implement due to the necessary changes to organisational processes and research culture[31]. Primary prevention cannot be replaced by secondary and tertiary prevention. The latter ones should always build on a comprehensive primary prevention approach.
Table: Measures to address psychosocial risk factors
| | Primary | Secondary | Tertiary |
|---|
| Organisational | Workload
- setting realistic workload expectations
- reducing workload or responsibilities, e.g. reasonable allocation of responsibilities, capacity building of support staff Work-life balance
- flexible work arrangements, hybrid working
- right to disconnect
Career development
transparent career development policies and evaluation systems, clear reward and recognition schemes. Research culture
- encouraging open communication and a supportive work culture
- leadership training for supervisors
- involving researchers in work organisation aspects
- avoid isolation e.g. encourage interdisciplinary teamwork, reward teamwork Mentoring
- establish formal mentorship programmes focused on career guidance as well as personal/professional wellbeing; mentor training for senior researchers
- promote peer-to-peer mentoring initiatives Adressing mental-health related stigma
- fostering diversity and inclusion
- zero tolerance for all forms of discrimination
- training and awareness-raising | Detection of early warning signs
- training of supervisors and mentors on how to recognise early warning signs of mental health problems.
- include mental health in health suveillance schemes, medical check-ups Early confidential assistance
- appoint confidential counsellors to whom people can turn for help with mental health issues and if needed, refer to professional help
- establish peer-support networks Follow-up and feedback
- ensure issues related to psychosocial risks are regularly discussed and that any problems that are brought up are followed up on to avoid escalation
- create possibilities for raising concerns in group discussions, encouraging open conversations with mentor/supervisor, peer networks Health promotion
- investing in programmes promoting healthy lifestyles
- mindfulness programmes, yoga sessions | Support structures
- provide support services such as counselling, employee assistance programmes, or access to mental health professionals.
- inform staff on how they can seek support Return-to-Work
- tailored reintegration plans for staff after mental health-related leave.
- collaboration OSH and HR services Further guidance: EU-OSHA Guidance for workplaces on how to support individuals experiencing mental health problems[53] |
|---|
| Individual | Onboarding programme
- orientation for early-career researchers to set expectations and build networks
- active mentee participation in mentoring programme
Career development
Supporting researchers to align their goals with realistic career pathways (cfr. No limits toolkit[54], Career handbook[55], PIPERS project career kit[56]). | Counselling programmes
e.g. coping with stress, and anxiety, resilience, mindfulness Job design
- adapt tasks and work arrangements to fit the individual needs (prevent exacerbation of symptoms)
- training to enhance skills Training
workshops on time-management, digital skills. Career coaching
review career goals and pathways. | Access to support structures
on a confidential basis
Return-to-work accommodations
gradual return to work, flexible work arrangements, temporary task shifts, training.
|
|---|
Source: compiled by the author based on[57] [53] [31] [58] [19] [59]
Conclusions
Although research careers offer many benefits, such as intellectual fulfilment, the pursuit of knowledge and flexibility, researchers are also exposed to a range of psychosocial risk factors that can affect their well-being. They are expected to manage a multitude of complex tasks, which often leads to significant workloads. Working long hours, including evenings and weekends, is often seen as part of the job in order to meet the expectations of the research ecosystem. At the same time, social support between colleagues is often limited due to individualised structures and the nature of research work. These challenges are exacerbated by broader structural and cultural shifts in the increasingly competitive and pressurised research landscape. Many researchers, particularly those in the early stages of their careers, face difficulties in securing stable employment and navigating uncertain career paths, which can lead to job precarity. Numerous studies have reported high levels of stress, burnout, anxiety and depression, particularly among early-career researchers.
It is essential to address these challenges in order to protect individual well-being and ensure the long-term sustainability and excellence of the research sector. In recognition of this, the European Union has taken steps to make research careers more attractive and sustainable. The European Framework to Attract and Retain Research, Innovation and Entrepreneurial Talents in Europe4 sets out key recommendations for Member States, with a focus on improving recruitment and working conditions, ensuring fair career development and progression. At workplace level, best practice shows that a comprehensive approach is the most effective way of tackling psychosocial risks and mental health challenges in the workplace. Research institutions must adopt strategies that prioritise mental health and career sustainability, as well as fostering a supportive and inclusive work culture. These strategies should incorporate primary, secondary and tertiary interventions; primary interventions are the most effective as they address the root causes of psychosocial risks.
[i] The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a global scientific collaboration, with scientists from various countries and organisations participating in its research. CERN, the European Organisation for Nuclear Research, is the host institution for the LHC.
