Introduction
In recent decades significant changes have taken place in the world of work due to increasing globalisation, development of information, shift from the manufacturing to the service sector and significant demographic changes. These changes can be most predominant in contractual arrangements, working hours, use of digital technology, atypical and flexible work arrangements, and changes in the workforce; which, in turn, have caused the decline of the standard employment relationship and led to an increase in precarious work. This article reviews the definitions of precarious work, identifies those most affected, and discusses its consequences to workers’ safety, health and wellbeing.
What is precarious work
Even though the term precarious work is frequently used at the European and international level, there is no universally accepted definition for this term and concept. This is mainly due to the multidimensional nature of precarious work and the differences in its understanding which typically depends on the country, region, the economic and social structure of the political systems and labour markets. Thus, a variety of terms have emerged from particular national contexts, such as: contingent, atypical or non-standard work[1].
To distinguish precarious work from ‘standard work’ and facilitate its characterisation, Rogers and Rodgers proposed four dimensions of precariousness[2]:
- Temporal – low certainty over the continuity of employment
- Organisational – lack of workers’ individual and collective control over working conditions, working time and shifts, work intensity, pay, health and safety
- Economic – poor pay (insufficient pay and salary progression)
- Social – legal, collective or customary protection against unfair dismissal, discrimination, and unacceptable working practices; and social protection (access to social security benefits covering health, accidents, unemployment insurance).
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), in the most general sense, precarious work is a means for employers to shift risks and responsibilities onto workers. It is work performed in the formal and informal economy, and is characterised by variable levels and degrees of objective (legal status) and subjective (feeling) characteristics of uncertainty and insecurity[1]. On the basis of this, a precarious job is defined: “by uncertainty as to the duration of employment, multiple possible employers or a disguised or ambiguous employment relationship, a lack of access to social protection and benefits usually associated with employment, low pay, and substantial legal and practical obstacles to joining a trade union and bargaining collectively"[1]. In contrast to precarious work, the ILO proposes the concept of decent work which is an umbrella concept that combines access to full and productive employment with various qualitative dimensions of work such as rights at work, social protection, and the promotion of social dialogue. While decent work seeks to provide stable, secure, and fair employment with social protections, precarious work undermines these objectives[3].
Distinction between precarious work and non-standard work
The terms precarious work and non-standard work are often used interchangeably, despite important distinctions between them[4]. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines non-standard work as employment that deviates from the traditional model, typically understood as full-time, permanent work based on a dependent relationship between employee and employer. Forms of non-standard work, such as short-term or casual employment, part-time or on-call work, and self-employment, are commonly linked to increased job and income insecurity. However, these arrangements can also offer flexibility and positive outcomes for workers seeking adaptable work schedules[4].
In many cases, though, non-standard work is not a worker’s preference but a necessity due to the unavailability of standard employment opportunities. Additionally, self-employment can sometimes mask an employment relationship, where individuals labelled as independent contractors have limited control over their work and are, in effect, dependent on those who pay for their services.
While non-standard work is often associated with greater insecurities, precarious work can exist in both standard and non-standard forms of employment, as it reflects broader issues of instability and lack of protections in the workplace[4].
Precarious work: multidimensional concept
Despite the lack of an agreed definition, the issue of precarious work is a topic of interest at European level. In July 2017, the European Parliament adopted a resolution on working conditions and precarious employment. The resolution defined precarious employment as 'employment which does not comply with EU, international and national standards and laws and/or does not provide sufficient resources for a decent life or adequate social protection'[5]. Preventing employment relationships that lead to precarious working conditions is also one of the basic principles of the European Pillar of Social Rights[6].
According to EU-OSHA, precarious work may be defined as non-standard, atypical, alternative employment that is poorly paid, insecure, unprotected, that cannot support a household, being frequently associated with part-time employment, seasonal and casual work, self-employment, fixed-term work, temporary work, on-call work, home-based workers and agency work[7]. This has also been referred to as employment with ‘low quality’[8]. Low quality jobs include, for example, ‘dead-end jobs’ and ‘low pay/low productivity jobs’[9]. It includes temporary, seasonal, part-time, on-call, day hire, casual or short term contracts; as well as self-employment, home working and multiple jobs[10]. Platform work in particular has been identified as a highly precarious form of employment[11]. Platform work is paid work that is brokered or facilitated by an online platform and carried out on location or online. It consists of jobs, often divided into tasks with services provided on demand, and relationships involving at least three parties: the platform, the client and the platform worker. Platform work often involves a high risk of an unclear employment status, a unilateral enforcement of contractual conditions, poor working conditions, lack of collective voice and rights and low access to social protection[12].
While precarious work has been conceptualised in various ways, most studies emphasise its multidimensional nature. A systematic review[13] aimed at summarising how precarious work has been defined and applied in research found that many studies lack a clear definition of the concept. However, the review identified three core dimensions that are commonly used to describe precarious work: employment insecurity, income inadequacy, and lack of rights and protection[13] . These dimensions represent an accumulation of unfavourable job characteristics.
Importantly, precarious work refers not to intrinsic aspects of a job (such as task content or demands), but rather to broader issues related to working conditions, such as job stability, income security, and worker participation in decision-making[14]. To assess employment precariousness, the Employment Precariousness Scale (EPRES)[15] was developed, measuring six distinct dimensions. This tool has been widely applied in both European and non-European contexts. The 6 dimensions of EPRES are[15]:
- temporariness
- disempowerment
- low wages
- exercise of rights
- vulnerability
- unpredictability of working times.
Prevalence of precarious work
The prevalence of precarious work also varies between EU countries and between sectors of activity. The incidence is higher in activities that are an extension of domestic and care work (i.e. cleaning, social and health care, catering, hotels, security, home deliveries, etc.). However, precarious work exists in all sectors - including the public sector - and in all countries[16]. Over the past decades, the number of workers employed under non-standard arrangements has risen quite significantly, coupled with a relaxation of legislation governing employee dismissals in various countries[17]. Changing global employment trends, marked by increased calls for a ‘flexible workforce’[18], have led to an increase in the number of temporary workers, including those on: part-time contracts, pseudo self-employment, subcontractors, and on-call contracts[19]. The Eurofound report based on data from the European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS, 2021) [20] states that a high number of workers are in precarious situations with 26% reporting to have difficulty making ends meet and 17% unable to predict their earnings in the coming three months[20].
Impact of precarious work on occupational safety and health
Precarious and atypical employment arrangements and non-standard working times are associated with a disadvantaged status in the labour market, which makes workers in such employment vulnerable to unsafe and hazardous working conditions. Systematic reviews show[21] [22] that precarious work as a multidimensional concept, as well as different separate dimensions of precarious work (e.g. contract duration, insecure jobs), are associated with a range of health problems, including mental and physical ill-health and work-related injuries, as well as health-related behaviours such as higher levels of smoking and poorer access to health care[21].
Non-standard forms of employment are often related to job insecurity. According to the European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS, 2021)[20], 15% of all workers fear losing their job in the six months following the survey, but job insecurity is more prevalent among the self-employed (19%), agency workers (40%) and temporary workers (33%). Job insecurity and increased work-related stress due to precarious work can negatively affect workers’ health and safety. Additionally, workers in these types of contracts are more vulnerable than permanent workers, as they usually carry out the most hazardous jobs, work in poorer conditions, and are the subject of less occupational safety and health (OSH) training that may increase the risk of occupational accidents[8]. Furthermore, temporary workers also have less access to OSH professionals, elude health monitoring over longer stretches of time, and may be overlooked by workers’ representatives in matters of OSH policy, which might explain the relatively poor OSH situation of those workers[23].
Consequences for the individual worker
The evidence suggests that in comparison to standard forms of employment contracts, precarious employment is associated with deterioration in workers’ health and safety, as well as with increased risks of a number of psychosocial issues[10] [19] [24] [25]. For example, a cross-sectional study of 255 workers in Barcelona found that precarious employment increased the likelihood of chronic stress for both men and women[26]. Another cross-sectional study of 1,115 Belgian domestic cleaners[14] also found a strong association between precarious work and poor mental health, but showed that the association was mediated by both job characteristics (job demands, task variety and autonomy) and perceived financial strain at the household level[14]. A study by Wahrendorf et al.[27] based on retrospective information at early career stages (25-45 years) of a sample of the French working population found that unstable and precarious employment trajectories are associated with higher prevalence of depressive symptoms.
A further consequence of non-standard forms of working is the impact on social security and pension coverage. If workers are working a small number of hours each week or are in precarious employment that is not continuous, this will have a negative impact on their social security coverage and entitlements. Finally, the transient nature of non-standard contractual arrangements has a negative impact on workers’ overall financial capacities, beyond the employment sphere[28].
Although temporary work arrangements can be used as a way to create more jobs opportunities during periods of high unemployment in most European countries, this has been found to have had a detrimental effect on health. Research indicates that under equal working conditions such types of employment tend to be associated with several health problems[29] [30] [31] [32], such as: distress, fatigue, musculoskeletal disorders[29], poor self-perceived health[33], liver disease, mental disorders[34], stroke[35], absenteeism and work-related stress[31][32]. The risks associated with temporary work include: increased occurrence of alcohol-related causes of death in both genders, and an increase in smoking-related causes of death in men[36]. Mortality risks have also been found to be substantially stronger if temporary work is continued on an involuntary basis or in combination with feelings of dissatisfaction[37]. Job insecurity and increased work-related stress due to precarious work has demonstrated to have a negative impact on workers’ health[24].
Consequences for the organisation
A large number of studies have found negative relationship between job insecurity, job satisfaction, motivation, job performance[8] [38]. The evidence also indicates that job insecurity in the long run can lead to increased long term sickness absence, disability pension[39] [40] and that creativity and problem-solving ability decreases with job insecurity[41]. This evidence ultimately suggests job insecurity, as one aspect of precarious work, to be detrimental to an organisation’s performance.
Consequences for society
At the societal level, the impact of precarious employment on social cohesion and birth rates should not be underestimated[28]. For example, non-standard contracts lead to discontinuous careers and low earnings, which, in contributory regimes, lead to impaired access to unemployment benefits and pensions and/or to low entitlements. Thus, employment precariousness directly links into social precariousness, which will become particularly evident when the current generation of young people reaches retirement age. Experts suggest that not enough thought has been given to this serious problem[42]. A short job tenure and low income (corresponding to few work hours) have an impact on unemployment subsidies, pensions and workers’ rights. In addition, precarious work can jeopardise people’s capacity to pay rent, ability to obtain bank credit, and opportunities to build a family.
Calls have, therefore, been made for social policy to include a generous, egalitarian and consensually managed system of social protection which can prevent the possible permanent installation of precarious employment, including the special social protection schemes to address the needs of specific groups of workers potentially affected by precariousness due to the nature of their jobs. There are groups of workers who have not secured a proper system of social protection adapted to their specific needs[42]. Legislation that enables the never-ending carrousel of fixed-term contracts which not only causes precariousness among the workers, but also threatens solidarity in society and hampers fair competition. More flexible work arrangements may have a clear financial impact on society in future years, for instance because a large proportion of the population will not have appropriate savings for pensions[43].
Initiatives to prevent and manage precarious work
A number of initiatives at the organisational level can be taken to manage precarious work. Worker involvement and participatory practices are key to stimulating worker representation, improving communication and voicing concerns[25]. Workers are able to deal with job insecurity in a better way if they are informed about planned restructuring as soon as possible. It is recommended that realistic and honest communications during restructuring processes, as well as the use of restorative strategies are used[23] [44] . Good interpersonal relationship at work and provision of social support is also useful to deal with job insecurity, as support has been found to buffer the negative effects of job insecurity on health[8] . Precarious employment is closely related to various psychosocial factors such as job content, workload and work pace, work schedule (shiftwork), job control, organisational culture and function, interpersonal relationships and support at work, therefore interventions aimed at preventing and managing psychosocial risks and promoting a good psychosocial working environment at the organisational level will also prevent and manage precarious work[8] [30].
Policy initiatives (such as EU regulations and their transposition into national norms in each EU Member State, ILO conventions) allow for the recognition and development of employment rights of workers on non-standard forms of contract, bringing them closer to those of standard workers. Furthermore, workers in non-standard employment who feel that their employment rights are being breached, usually have access to the same mechanisms for redress as workers in standard forms of employment through employment tribunals, labour courts and other support mechanisms, however, in many cases workers are not aware of or informed of such support mechanisms28. Examples of EU legislation aimed at protecting the rights of workers and prevent precarious employment in the European union are Directive 2019/1152/EU on Transparent and predictable working conditions[45] and the proposal for a Directive on improving working conditions in platform work[46].
Overarching EU strategies are also relevant to policy initiatives aimed at addressing precarious employment. This is because such strategies guide actions at the Community, as well as at the national level. In 2000, at the Lisbon summit of the Council of the European Union, the Council launched the Lisbon Strategy which highlighted the need for Europe to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion. In 2017, the European Pillar of Social Rights was adopted. The Pillar sets out 20 key principles to guide the way towards a strong social Europe that is fair and inclusive. “Secure and adaptable employment” is one of the key principles and includes the prevention of employment relationships that lead to precarious working conditions[6].
Various policies on occupational safety and health also seek to addressing challenges posed by precarious employment. A key priority of the Strategic Framework on Health and Safety at Work 2021-2027[47] is anticipating and managing change in the new world of work brought about by the green, digital and demographic transitions. Changing forms of work, especially those linked to the internet-enabled on-demand economy lead to more precarious employment and require innovative and updated OSH solutions.
Conclusions
To remain competitive in a situation of global competition, companies are becoming more and more flexible. New forms of flexible employment (such as, part-timework, temporary work, platform work and on-call work) have been increasing. The rise in precarious employment can lead to a significant negative impact on workers’ health and safety, but also on the performance and sustainability of organisations. In general, it can have a significant detrimental impact on social cohesion, solidarity and equality: pillars of the European social model.
While a number of policy initiatives have been implemented, the need for good working conditions for all workers, irrespective of type of contract needs to be emphasised within the European Employment Strategy, if the social and economic problems of "low quality" jobs or "precarious" employment are going to be faced. Furthermore, in reforming social policies, the impact in terms of precarious employment (positive or negative) should be taken into account, and additional efforts should be made to further reinforce and assessing all these aspects through a system of employment indicators. With the aim to focus specifically on a wider range of job characteristics that aim to identify "low quality" jobs; analysing more extensively the concept of "employment quality" and the relationships among its different aspects; and improving the data quality, particularly in relation to indicators for temporary employment, constrained part-time employment, and quasi self-employment[42].
